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Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are currently one of the most important electrochemical energy storage devices, powering electronic mobile devices and electric vehicles alike. However, there is a remarkable difference between their rate of production and rate of recycling. At the end of their lifecycle, only a limited number of LIBs undergo any recycl...
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... Battery Resources process is designed to treat LIBs with LiNixMnyCozO2 cathode chemistry. Figure 8 presents a schematic representation of the process. Initially, spent LIBs undergo a discharging step to reduce the risk of spontaneous explosion during shredding. ...
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... final destination of the magnetic fraction has not been mentioned in the literature [84,85], but refining could be carried out by a third party company. The non-magnetic fraction is mixed with NaOH in order to extract Al in the form of NaAlO2 ("dissolving" box in Figure 8). The resulting slurry is then filtered and dried at 60 °C, followed by sieving with an opening size of 250 μm. ...
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... the pH to 6.5 with the addition of NaOH promotes the precipitation of the remaining Al, Fe, and Cu ("2. Leaching and Precipitation" in Figure 8). At this stage, N2 gas is also added to prevent the oxidation of Mn 2+ ions [86]. ...
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... the third leaching stage, different amounts of MnSO4, NiSO4, and CoSO4 are added ("3. Leaching and Precipitation" in Figure 8), to obtain a ratio of 1:1:1 of Co, Mn, and Ni in the solution. There were no details available in the literature about the origins of the Ni, Mn, and Co salts added [84]. ...
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... the final hydrometallurgical step ("4. Leaching and Precipitation" in Figure 8), Na2CO3 is added at a temperature of 40 °C to precipitate Li2CO3 from the remaining solution. The previously extracted Co(OH)2, Mn(OH)2, and Ni(OH)2 are mixed with the precipitated Li2CO3 and some additional virgin Li2CO3 to synthesize battery-grade cathode material through compression into pellets and sintering at 900 °C. ...
Citations
... Hydrometallurgical recycling stands as a widely employed technique for recovering the raw materials in NCM batteries in China (Tedjar and Foudraz, 2010;Velázquez-Martínez et al., 2019;CIECCPA, 2023). The bill of materials for the hydrometallurgical recycling process was acquired from the technology report of a leading battery recycling company, outlining the critical stages involved, including mechanical treatment (dismantling, crushing, calcining, and sorting), followed by leaching, extraction, and precipitation, as illustrated in Fig. 2. ...
... Currently, China is a leading market for EV production and sales, including battery manufacturing [129]. To manage this extensive amount of EVs, the Chinese government has employed the extended producer responsibilities (EPR) system [130]. In addition, they have issued the "Notice on Printing and Distributing the Interim Measures for the Administration of Recycling and Utilization of New Energy Vehicle Power Batteries." ...
Electric vehicle (EV) batteries have lower environmental impacts than traditional internal combustion engines. However, their disposal poses signifcant environmental concerns due to the presence of toxic materials. Although safer than lead-acid
batteries, nickel metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries still present risks to health and the environment. This study reviews the environmental and social concerns surrounding EV batteries and their waste. It explores the potential threats of these
batteries to human health and the environment. It also discusses alternative methods to enhance EV-battery performance,
safety, and sustainability, such as hybrid systems of green technologies and innovative recycling processes. Finding alternative materials for EV batteries is crucial to addressing current resource shortage risks and improving EV performance and sustainability. Therefore, the development of efcient and sustainable solutions for the safe handling of retired EV batteries is necessary to ensure carbon neutrality and mitigate environmental and health risks.
... Currently, China is a leading market for EV production and sales, including battery manufacturing [129]. To manage this extensive amount of EVs, the Chinese government has employed the extended producer responsibilities (EPR) system [130]. In addition, they have issued the "Notice on Printing and Distributing the Interim Measures for the Administration of Recycling and Utilization of New Energy Vehicle Power Batteries." ...
Electric vehicle (EV) batteries have lower environmental impacts than traditional internal combustion engines. However,
their disposal poses significant environmental concerns due to the presence of toxic materials. Although safer than lead-acid
batteries, nickel metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries still present risks to health and the environment. This study reviews
the environmental and social concerns surrounding EV batteries and their waste. It explores the potential threats of these
batteries to human health and the environment. It also discusses alternative methods to enhance EV-battery performance,
safety, and sustainability, such as hybrid systems of green technologies and innovative recycling processes. Finding alterna
tive materials for EV batteries is crucial to addressing current resource shortage risks and improving EV performance and
sustainability. Therefore, the development of efficient and sustainable solutions for the safe handling of retired EV batteries
is necessary to ensure carbon neutrality and mitigate environmental and health risks.
... There are certain advantages and disadvantages to all these technologies. For instance, pyro-metallurgical processes usually do not require pre-treatment and generally avoid pre-processing; however, they mostly result in alloys, which will need complex post-separations using hydrometallurgical or other methods [17]. In addition, pyro-metallurgical processes require high energy input and possible environmental pollution due to the discharge of toxic vapors and gasses, and this could be a major concern in large-scale pyro-metallurgy [17]. ...
... For instance, pyro-metallurgical processes usually do not require pre-treatment and generally avoid pre-processing; however, they mostly result in alloys, which will need complex post-separations using hydrometallurgical or other methods [17]. In addition, pyro-metallurgical processes require high energy input and possible environmental pollution due to the discharge of toxic vapors and gasses, and this could be a major concern in large-scale pyro-metallurgy [17]. ...
Extensive use of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicles, electronics, and other energy storage applications has resulted in a need to recycle valuable metals Li, Mn, Ni, and Co in these devices. In this work, an aqueous mixture of glycolic and lactic acid is shown as an excellent leaching agent to recover these critical metals from spent Li-ion laptop batteries combined with cathode and anode coatings without adding hydrogen peroxide or other reducing agents. An aqueous acid mixture of 0.15 M in glycolic and 0.35 M in lactic acid showed the highest leaching efficiencies of 100, 100, 100, and 89% for Li, Ni, Mn, and Co, respectively, in an experiment at 120 °C for 6 h. Subsequently, the chelate solution was evaporated to give a mixed metal-hydroxy acid chelate gel. Pyrolysis of the dried chelate gel at 800 °C for 15 h could be used to burn off hydroxy acids, regenerating lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide, and the novel method presented to avoid the precipitation of metals as hydroxide or carbonates. The Li, Ni, Mn, and Co ratio of regenerated lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide is comparable to this metal ratio in pyrolyzed electrode coating and showed similar powder X-ray diffractograms, suggesting the suitability of α-hydroxy carboxylic acid mixtures as leaching agents and ligands in regeneration of mixed metal oxide via pyrolysis of the dried chelate gel.
... However, the global recycling rate for LIBs is still less than 5% [59]. To tackle this problem and reduce the world's reliance on virgin materials, the CE approach suggests two strategies: recycling LIBs to recover raw materials such as lithium, cobalt, and manganese and re-using LIBs in stationary energy systems or other applications [60,61]. Additionally, innovative recycling technologies are poised to increase the efficiency of material recovery and reduce waste. ...
... Additionally, innovative recycling technologies are poised to increase the efficiency of material recovery and reduce waste. Nonetheless, while there is a legislative push by policymakers to encourage circular economy implementation, challenges remain such as material losses and the need for further processing in order to reuse LIBs in different applications [61]. Additionally, there are also important technical and economical hurdles that prevent recycling technologies from achieving high recovery rates, as well as a lack of data with regard to reuse and remanufacturing technologies, which are needed in order to evaluate the usage of LIBs in secondary applications [62,63]. ...
A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) quantifies the environmental impacts during the life of a product from cradle to grave. It evaluates energy use, material flow, and emissions at each stage of life. This report addresses the challenges and potential solutions related to the surge in electric vehicle (EV) batteries in the United States amidst the EV market’s exponential growth. It focuses on the environmental and economic implications of disposal as well as the recycling of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). With millions of EVs sold in the past decade, this research highlights the necessity of efficient recycling methods to mitigate environmental damage from battery production and disposal. Utilizing a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Cost Assessment (LCCA), this research compares emissions and costs between new and recycled batteries by employing software tools such as SimaPro V7 and GREET V2. The findings indicate that recycling batteries produces a significantly lower environmental impact than manufacturing new units from new materials and is economically viable as well. This research also emphasizes the importance of preparing for the upcoming influx of used EV batteries and provides suggestions for future research to optimize the disposal and recycling of EV batteries.
... 13 These methods require complex pretreatment and multi-step leaching processes that involve various strong acids and bases. 14 In contrast, our approach employs aluminium foil instead of fresh chemicals. In the battery recycling workow, a signicant amount of low-purity aluminium foil is generated, which is challenging to further purify and is typically considered waste. ...
In order to mitigate the risks associated with cobalt supply, a safe and affordable LiFePO4-based (LFP) cathode for Li-ion batteries can be a significant solution to meet the rapidly growing battery market. However, economical and environmentally friendly recycling of LFP is impossible with currently available recycling technologies. In this study, an acid-free mechanochemical approach is applied to reclaim Li from LFP using Al as a reducing agent. The reaction mechanism involved in reductive ball-milling followed by water leaching has been elucidated through the examination of various milling times and molar ratios of components, fostering a deeper understanding of the process. Assessing the yield and purity of the final products provides insights into potential enhancements for this technology. Utilizing Al as the material of the current collector eliminates the need for additional external additives, thereby simplifying the recycling workflow. Continued research into this process has the potential to facilitate efficient and economical recycling of LFP materials.
... Currently, the combination of pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical routes has become attractive and shows several advantages. 37 One interesting process example is the Umicore process, 38 which combines spent-LIBs with slag builder and flux in a smelting furnace to enrich the cobalt, nickel, copper, and iron into alloy phases, followed by a hydrometallurgical refinement. The slag, which contains Li−Al−Si−Ca−Mn−O, is treated as construction material. ...
... The current state-of-the-art industrial scale LIB recycling facilities primarily focus on recovering the most expensive metals such as Co, Ni and Cu while neither graphite nor Li are recovered due to their perceived low economic value (Chernyaev et al., 2023, Costa et al., 2021, Jena et al., 2021, Salces et al., 2022, Vanderbruggen et al. 2021a, Velazquez-Martinez et al., 2019. However, graphite represents 14 -22 % of a LIBs weight and therefore, it should be recovered to satisfy the expected EU recycling requirements (Chernyaev et al., 2023, Vanderbruggen et al., 2021a, Vanderbruggen et al., 2022b. ...
The growing electric vehicle industry has increased the demand for raw materials used in lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), raising concerns about material availability. Froth flotation has gained attention as a LIB recycling method, allowing the recovery of low value materials while preserving the chemical integrity of electrode materials. Furthermore, as new battery chemistries such as lithium titanate (LTO) are introduced into the market, strategies to treat mixed battery streams are needed. In this work, laboratory-scale flotation separation experiments were conducted on two model black mass samples: i) a mixture containing a single cathode (i.e., NMC811) and two anode species (i.e., LTO and graphite), simulating a mixed feedstock prior to hydrometallurgical treatment; and ii) a graphite-TiO 2 mixture to reflect the expected products after leaching. The results indicate that graphite can be recovered with > 98 % grade from NMC811-LTO-graphite mixtures. Additionally, it was found that flotation kinetics are dependent on the electrode particle species present in the suspension. In contrast, the flotation of graphite from TiO 2 resulted in a low grade product (<96 %) attributed to the significant entrainment of ultrafine TiO 2 particles. These results suggest that flotation of graphite should be preferably carried out before hydrometallurgical treatment of black mass.
... Furthermore, emerging recycling technologies seems to demonstrate promising advancements towards aligning with CE principles by recovering a broader range of components and reducing waste streams. However, these processes still face challenges, including losses of non-recovered materials and the need for further processing of recovered compounds to make them suitable for LIB manufacturing [86]. ...
This article focuses on the reuse and recycling of end-of-life (EOL) lithium-ion batteries (LIB) in the USA in the context of the rapidly growing electric vehicle (EV) market. Due to the recent increase in the enactment of both current and pending regulations concerning EV battery recycling, this work focuses on the recycling aspect for lithium-ion batteries rather than emphasizing the reuse of EOL batteries (although these practices have value and utility). A comparative analysis of various recycling methods is presented, including hydrometallurgy, pyrometallurgy, direct recycling, and froth flotation. The efficiency and commercial viability of these individual methods are highlighted. This article also emphasizes the practices and capabilities of leading companies, noting their current superior annual processing capacities. The transportation complexities of lithium-ion batteries are also discussed, noting that they are classified as hazardous materials and that stringent safety standards are needed for their handling. The study underscores the importance of recycling in mitigating environmental risks associated with EOL of LIBs and facilitates comparisons among the diverse recycling processes and capacities among key players in the industry.
... A LIB module can be mainly divided into a cathode, anode, electrolyte, separator, cell housing and module periphery. Considering the cost and electrochemical performance, Ni Graphite (flake) 1340 1340 1390 1300 [9] Currently, the recycling technologies for EoL-LIBs include high-temperature pyrometallurgical treatment, mid/low-temperature thermal treatment such as pyrolysis and roasting, mechanical treatment and hydrometallurgical treatment [1,[10][11][12][13][14][15][16]. In a complete recycling process, these pathways do not exist separately but are combined in a certain way. ...
Among the technologies used for spent lithium-ion battery recycling, the common approaches include mechanical treatment, pyrometallurgical processing and hydrometallurgical processing. These technologies do not stand alone in a complete recycling process but are combined. The constant changes in battery materials and battery design make it a challenge for the existing recycling processes, and the need to design efficient and robust recycling processes for current and future battery materials has become a critical issue today. Therefore, this paper simplifies the current treatment technologies into three recycling routes, namely, the hot pyrometallurgical route, warm mechanical route and cold mechanical route. By using the same feedstock, the three routes are compared based on the recovery rate of the six elements (Al, Cu, C, Li, Co and Ni). The three different recycling routes represent specific application scenarios, each with their own advantages and disadvantages. In the hot pyrometallurgical route, the recovery of Co is over 98%, and the recovery of Ni is over 99%. In the warm mechanical route, the recovery of Li can reach 63%, and the recovery of graphite is 75%. In the cold mechanical route, the recovery of Cu can reach 75%, and the recovery of Al is 87%. As the chemical compositions of battery materials and various doping elements continue to change today, these three recycling routes could be combined in some way to improve the overall recycling efficiency of batteries.
