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Schematic representation of a casein micelle. Source: http://openwetware.org/ wiki/User:Anthony_Salvagno/Notebook/Research/2009/11/11/Andy's_Poster. Last accessed 08/01/2014.
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Biopolymer-based nanostructures or microstructures can be fabricated with different compositions, structures, and properties so that colloidal delivery systems can be tailored for specific applications. These structures can be assembled using various approaches, including electrospinning, coacervation, nanoprecipitation, injection, layer-by-layer d...
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... structures that encapsulate cal- cium phosphate, which is essential for proper growth and functioning of infants. The core of the casein micelles is primarily formed by αs1-, αs2-, and β-caseins, while the outer layer consists of κ-casein, which helps stabilize them by generating a strong steric repulsion (Kaya-Celiker & Mallikarjunan, 2012; Fig. 3). Casein micelles can be produced in vitro by self-assembly of the casein units around a hydrophobic compound. Different salts (such as potas- sium phosphate, calcium chloride, and/or potassium citrate) are used to cre- ate the proper pH and ionic strength conditions to encapsulate the hydrophobic compound (Semo, Kesselman, Danino, & ...
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... There is no definitive answer to this question since each application entails using unique retention/release mechanisms. Thus, the design of polymer-based nanocarriers for bioactive ingredients should be based on the involved Fickian or non-Fickian release mechanisms (Davidov-Pardo, Joye, & McClements, 2015). ...
This review focuses on the role of nanotechnology, specifically nanoencapsulation, in enhancing food safety through antimicrobial effectiveness. Food safety is a critical global concern, and nanotechnology has emerged as a promising solution to prevent or reduce microbial growth in food products. Nanoencapsulation involves enclosing hydrophobic molecules, such as essential oils (EOs), within a protective coating, improving their stability and controlled release. The review discusses recent advancements in nanoencapsulation technology, exploring various wall materials and methods that contribute to better delivery and increased activity of anti-microbials. The physical and chemical properties of coating materials and EOs are examined, highlighting their impact on release characteristics and the resulting antibacterial and antifungal properties against foodborne pathogens. Key findings reveal that the selection of appropriate encapsulation methods and wall materials significantly influences the protection and controlled release of EOs, enhancing their antimicrobial activity. Encapsulated EOs have demonstrated amplified effectiveness by disrupting vital microbial functions such as ergosterol biosynthesis, essential ion leakage, and bacterial membrane integrity. Once within microbial cells, these EOs or their bioactive components hinder DNA synthesis or bacterial ribosomal activity, ultimately impeding protein metabolism. Despite the promising potential of nanoencapsulated EOs across diverse applications , their toxicological profiles and organ-specific targeting remain insufficiently explored. Several challenges contribute to this research gap, including the intricate nature of nanoencapsulated EOs, limited in-vivo studies, species-specific variations, diverse administration routes, absence of standardized protocols, regulatory complexities, and resource constraints. Overcoming these hurdles is vital for ensuring the safe and effective use of nanoencapsulated EOs. Overall, this review provides valuable insights into the fundamental principles of antimicrobial nanocarriers and colloidal systems with tunable bactericidal properties. By understanding the underlying mechanisms of nanoencapsulation and its effects on antimicrobial activity, researchers can develop more effective strategies to combat foodborne pathogens and improve food preservation methods.
... The compounds to be delivered are usually referred to as the active or bioactive materials, while the material that forms the surrounding matrix is referred to as the carrier or wall material. 14,45 Additionally, particle diameter defines if the system is a micro-(1-1000 µm) or nano-delivery system (<1000 nm). ...
... These properties can be extremely beneficial when planning to use delivery systems for bioactive compounds in foods. 14,[45][46][47] Over the last few years, research regarding delivery systems for resveratrol has been increasing, but the focus has been pharmaceutical applications. Alternatively, applications in the food industry need to address several other factors not considered in pharmaceutical applications, such as the need to use food-grade materials that are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and both the encapsulation materials and technology need to be approved by the governing agencies, such as the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). ...
... Alternatively, applications in the food industry need to address several other factors not considered in pharmaceutical applications, such as the need to use food-grade materials that are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) and both the encapsulation materials and technology need to be approved by the governing agencies, such as the European Food Safety Agency (EFSA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 11,14,45 Additionally, the selected materials and methods should be economically feasible to be commercialized on a large scale. Also, the delivery system should not negatively impact the sensorial and physicochemical properties of the final product (e.g., texture, flavor, and appearance) and should maintain resveratrol in a metabolically active form, capable of exerting its health-promoting benefits when incorporated in a functional food. ...
Herein, we review the current state-of-the-art on the use of micro-and nano-delivery systems, a possible solution to some of the drawbacks associated with the incorporation of resveratrol in foods. Specifically, we present an overview of a wide range of micro-nanostructures, namely, lipidic and polymeric, used for the delivery of resveratrol. Also, the gastrointestinal fate of resveratrol-loaded micro-nanostructures, as a critical parameter for their use as functional food, is explored in terms of stability, bioaccessibility, and bio-availability. Different micro-nanostructures are of interest for the development of functional foods given that they can provide different advantages and properties to these foods and even be tailor-made to address specific issues (e.g., controlled or targeted release). Therefore, we discuss a wide range of micro-nanostructures, namely, lipidic and polymeric, used to deliver resveratrol and aimed at the development of functional foods. It has been reported that the use of some production methodologies can be of greater interest than others, for example, emulsification, solvent displacement and electrohydrodynamic processing (EHDP) enable a greater increase in bioaccessibility. Additionally, the use of coatings facilitates further improvements in bioaccessibility, which is likely due to the increased gastric stability of the coated micro-nanostructures. Other properties, such as mucoadhesion, can also help improve bioaccessibility due to the increase in gut retention time. Additionally, cytotoxicity (e.g., biocompatibility, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory) and possible sensorial impact of resveratrol-loaded micro-and nano-systems in foods are highlighted.
... Moreover, biopolymers are promising candidates for materials used in biotechnology applications because they tend to be compatible with diverse types of cells and tissues. In addition, they can be modified in a wide range of manners, which raises their applicability, in addition to being biodegradable and originating from renewable materials [1]. Among the natural polymers that have biotechnological potential, starch can be highlighted, particularly for its physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. ...
... It is a polysaccharide that is composed of two polymers, amylose, a linear polymer, and amylopectin, and has highly branched chains [15]. Amylose is a mainly linear polymer that consists of α (1,4) linked D-glucopyranosyl units, while amylopectin is a branched polymer of α-D-glucopyranosyl units that are primarily linked by (1,4) bonds with branches resulting from (1,6) linked D-glucopyranosyl units [16]. ...
Due to its abundance in nature and low cost, starch is one of the most relevant raw materials for replacing synthetic polymers in a number of applications. It is generally regarded as non-toxic, biocompatible, and biodegradable and, therefore, a safe option for biomedical, food, and packaging applications. In this review, we focused on studies that report the use of starch as a matrix for stabilization, incorporation, or release of bioactive compounds, and explore a wide range of applications of starch-based materials. One of the key application areas for bioactive compounds incorporated in starch matrices is the pharmaceutical industry, especially in orally disintegrating films. The packaging industry has also shown great interest in using starch films, especially those with antioxidant activity. Regarding food technology, starch can be used as a stabilizer in nanoemulsions, thus allowing the incorporation of bioactive compounds in a variety of food types. Starch also presents potential in the cosmetic industry as a delivery system. However, there are still several types of industry that could benefit from the incorporation of starch matrices with bioactive compounds, which are described in this review. In addition, the use of microbial bioactive compounds in starch matrices represents an almost unexplored field still to be investigated.
... Proteins can form nanocarriers with polysaccharides, emulsifiers, and other proteins through non-covalent interactions, such as van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic effects, and electrostatic interactions. 62 The range and intensity of these non-covalent interactions can be adjusted by the variations of the solvent type, solution concentration, temperature, pH, ionic strength, etc. These non-covalent interactions can bind the components together and maintain a certain degree of stability in the PNs. ...
... Under the influence of gravitational factors, acid, base, salt ions, temperature, and other factors in the solution, the PN is susceptible to aggregation, thereby reducing the physical stability. 62 Gravitational separation is driven by the density difference between the continuous phase and the dispersed phase. It can be slowed down by decreasing the particle diameter, reducing the density difference between the continuous phase and dispersed phase, and increasing the viscosity of continuous phase. ...
Many proteins can be used to fabricate nanocarriers for encapsulation, protection, and controlled release of nutraceuticals. This review examined the protein-based nanocarriers from microscopic molecular characteristics to the macroscopical structural and functional attributes. Structural, physical, and chemical properties of protein-based nanocarriers were introduced in detail. The spatial size, shape, water dispersibility, colloidal stability, etc. of protein-based nanocarriers were largely determined by the molecular physicochemical principles of protein. Different preparative techniques, including antisolvent precipitation, pH-driven, electrospray, and gelation methods, among others, can be used to fabricate different protein-based nanocarriers. Various modifications based on physical, chemical, and enzymatic approaches can be used to improve the functional performance of these nanocarriers. Protein is a natural resource with a wide range of sources, including plant, animal, and microbial, which are usually used to fabricate the nanocarriers. Protein-based nanocarriers have many advantages in aid of the application of bioactive ingredients to the medical, food, and cosmetic industries.
... Previous studies have clarified that protein-based carriers with low toxicity, abundant sources, high nutritional value, and low cost are of great interest in designing delivery systems (Elzoghby, Samy, & Elgindy, 2012;Davidov-Pardo, Joye, & McClements, 2015). Whey protein isolate (WPI) as a non-toxic animal source of protein has received much attention (Gad et al., 2011;Brandelli, Daroit, & Corrêa, 2015;Patel, 2015). ...
... The increase in temperature of the peak related to protein showed the changes in its structure by combination resulting in improvement in the thermal stability of protein in comparison to the previous studies (Felfoul, Lopez, Gaucheron, Attia, & Ayadi, 2015). The generated endothermic weak peaks corresponding to the loss of water by quercetin at 130 • C and quercetin melting point at 315 • C expressed stability of quercetin in contrast with the pure states with sharp peaks, possibly due to the presence of carrier (Dave et al., 2018;Anwer et al., 2016). These consequences were the occasion of quercetin entrapment by proteinalginate microparticles. ...
Despite the application of whey protein isolate (WPI) in the functional foods and pharmaceutical industry, its usage is limited due to the highly likelihood of coagulation. Herein, we improved the WPI properties by using the alginate, as the inner phase, and the black seed oil, as the oil phase for quercetin encapsulation to the human-like model of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) treatment. The whey-alginate microparticles were prepared with high thermo-static and swelling-rate properties containing quercetin as the amorphous form. The porous nature of the synthesized protein-gel increased quercetin sustainability and slowed its release. In conclusion, the synthesized whey-alginate microparticles containing quercetin improved the NAFLD both in the terms of biochemical and histopathological properties. The findings demonstrate that this delivery system is applicable in pharmaceutical sciences that are recommended to be studied at the other diet-related chronic disease.
... The functional properties of food proteins in particular, including emulsification, gelation, foaming, and water binding capacity, as well as their applications as ingredients in the food industry have been highlighted during the last few years [5,12,13]. Protein structures are one of the most convenient and widely used matrices in food applications, and in particular protein-based nanostructures have recently attracted a great deal of interest in food engineering and delivery applications [14,15]. ...
Proteins are receiving significant attention for the production of structures for the encapsulation of active compounds, aimed at their use in food products. Proteins are one of the most used biomaterials in the food industry due to their nutritional value, non-toxicity, biodegradability, and ability to create new textures, in particular, their ability to form gel particles that can go from macro- to nanoscale. This review points out the different techniques to obtain protein-based nanostructures and their use to encapsulate and release bioactive compounds, while also presenting some examples of food grade proteins, the mechanism of formation of the nanostructures, and the behavior under different conditions, such as in the gastrointestinal tract.
... 93 Recently, there has been interest in developing other types of protein nanoparticle for application in foods. 86,94,95 In particular, protein nanoparticles are being developed to create delivery systems to encapsulate, protect, and deliver bioactive agents, such as colors, flavors, preservatives, vitamins, minerals, and nutraceuticals (similar to lipid nanoparticles). Protein nanoparticles usually consist of a cluster of aggregated protein molecules held together by physical interactions (e.g., hydrophobic, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals, or electrostatic attraction) or covalent bonds (e.g., disulfide bonds). ...
Nanotechnology offers the food industry a number of new approaches for improving the quality, shelf life, safety, and healthiness of foods. Nevertheless, there is concern from consumers, regulatory agencies, and the food industry about potential adverse effects (toxicity) associated with the application of nanotechnology in foods. In particular, there is concern about the direct incorporation of engineered nanoparticles into foods, such as those used as delivery systems for colors, flavors, preservatives, nutrients, and nutraceuticals, or those used to modify the optical, rheological, or flow properties of foods or food packaging. This review article summarizes the application of both inorganic (silver, iron oxide, titanium dioxide, silicon dioxide, and zinc oxide) and organic (lipid, protein, and carbohydrate) nanoparticles in foods, highlights the most important nanoparticle characteristics that influence their behavior, discusses the importance of food matrix and gastrointestinal tract effects on nanoparticle properties, emphasizes potential toxicity mechanisms of different food-grade nanoparticles, and stresses important areas where research is still needed. The authors note that nanoparticles are already present in many natural and processed foods, and that new kinds of nanoparticles may be utilized as functional ingredients by the food industry in the future. Many of these nanoparticles are unlikely to have adverse affects on human health, but there is evidence that some of them could have harmful effects and that future studies are required.
... However, at pKa < pH < pI, complex coacervation could occur due to the strong electrostatic attraction, and the complete neutralization of biopolymer charges ( Weinbreck et al., 2003;Perez et al., 2014). This condition drives to associative phase separation, being one phase rich in both biopolymers and the other rich in solvent ( Davidov-Pardo et al., 2015;Niu et al., 2014). Moreover, when pH is reduced too far, the coacervates precipitate, because they become closely packed together. ...
... Moreover, when pH is reduced too far, the coacervates precipitate, because they become closely packed together. Lastly, when pH < pKa cosolubility condition is newly reached due to the loss of charges of the polysaccharides ( Davidov-Pardo et al., 2015). Associative phase separation involves both complex coacervation and precipitation. ...
... associative phase separation was not registered (as can be seen in Fig. 3), cosolubility phenomenon could be proposed at these conditions. This behavior can be explained by a great repulsion among biopolymer net charges ( Davidov-Pardo et al., 2015). However, at pH < 6.0 mixed systems showed phase separation after 24 h ( Fig. 3), suggesting that the observed turbidity could be related to the formation of big particles which sediment. ...
This paper gives experimental information about the application of protein-polysaccharide associative phase separation to produce a dried ingredient (powder) of linoleic acid (LA). Powder production process consisted in: (i) LA binding to a well-characterized ovalbumin nanosized heat-induced aggregate (OVAn) to form LA-OVAn complexes in solution, (ii) polysaccharides (PS) addition to promote the associative phase separation of LA-OVAn complexes, and (iii) freeze-drying of the precipitated phase in order to obtain LA-OVAn-PS powders. For this, OVAn and anionic PS (gum Arabic -GA- and high methoxyl pectin -HMP-) mixed systems were studied at different OVAn-PS concentration ratio (ROVAn:PS) and aqueous medium pH by means of a complementary techniques set: optical density at 400 nm (as a measure of turbidity), zeta potential and biopolymer phase composition determination. Biopolymer associative phase separation process was described in terms of OVAn and PS separation yield (YOVAn and YPS, respectively) and PS content necessary to precipitate OVAn (PSp). YOVAn and PSp results suggest that ROVAn:PS 1:1 and 2:1 for OVAn-GA and OVAn-HMP systems, respectively, and pH 3.0 were the most suitable conditions to obtain LA-OVAn-PS freeze-dried powders. Powders water dispersibility and LA oxidative stability were evaluated over 13 days (expressed as non-deteriorated LA percent -LAND-). Results revealed that water dispersion behavior of LA-OVAn-HMP powder was better than LA-OVAn-GA; besides it has the highest LAND (∼80%) at the 13 day. These experimental findings highlighted that OVAn-PS associative phase separation was a convenient strategy, besides this information could be relevant to produce a LA functional ingredient.
... Formation of soluble complexes typically occurs at low ratios of protein to polysaccharide, and at moderate ionic strengths, i.e. under conditions where biopolymers have low charge densities or when pH is relatively far from the proteinʹs pI. For example, for a protein-anionic polysaccharide combination at pH values somewhat greater than the pI, net charges of both protein and polysaccharide are identical and form soluble complexes (Fig. 1, Davidov-Pardo, Joye, & McClements, 2015 ). Under these conditions , few charged moieties are accessible on each molecule and less protein can interact with the polysaccharide to cause charge neutralization. ...
... As well, there exist narrow pH and ionic strength ranges ensuring complexes stability. It is possible to stabilize the complexed coacervate structures by a convenient heat cure, and/or enzymatic treatment (Davidov-Pardo et al., 2015; de Kruif, Weinbreck, de Vries, 2004; Jones, 2014; Turgeon & Laneuville, 2009). An appropriate heat treatment above the denaturation temperature of protein which induced protein-protein interactions was applied to stabilize whey proteins-xanthan gum and whey proteins-pectin complexes. ...
... In another work, the enzyme transglutaminase was added to low methoxy pectin-caseinate system to cross-link caseinate and promote matrix gelation (Zhang, Decker, & Fig. 1. Example of complex coacervation in a solution containing a globular protein and an anionic polysaccharide (Davidov-Pardo et al., 2015). Plant phenolics were also used to cross-link gelatin-pectin coacervates. ...
Biopolymeric microgels made of proteins and/or polysaccharides provide a renewable source for enteral nutrition, interface stabilization, controlled release applications and etc. These microgels consist of physically, chemically, or enzymatically cross-linked biopolymer molecules that trap and hold water within the particle network. They can be formed from single or mixed biopolymers using a variety of methods based on molecular association mechanisms and mechanical processes. Biopolymer type and microgelation method determine the main properties of resulting microgels. Certain challenges associated with the small dimensions of microgels can be addressed through the development of immobilized microgel matrices, in which individual microgel particles are entrapped inside a hydrogel or cross-linked to form a macroscopic network. Immobilized microgel matrices can provide unique properties and additional applications relative to bulk hydrogels or individual microgels alone. This article reviews manufacturing methods for producing biopolymeric microgels, and describes formation of microgel-based hydrogels via effective immobilization of microgels within a network.
... 10 Especially, the food proteins are potential oral delivery vehicles due to their good sensory attributes. 11 Water-soluble proteins such as gelatin and albumin have been widely explored as drug delivery carriers, but have limited ability to sustain drug release. 10 Zein is one of the few water-insoluble natural proteins with a high proportion (>50%) of hydrophobic amino acids (proline, alanine, and leucine). ...
The study was aimed at systematically investigating the influence of shell composition on the particle size, stability, release, cell uptake, permeability and in-vivo gastrointestinal distribution of food protein-based nanocarriers for oral delivery applications. Three different core-shell nanocarriers were prepared using food-grade biopolymers including zein-casein (ZC) nanoparticles, zein-lactoferrin (ZLF) nanoparticles and zein-PEG (ZPEG) micelles. Nile red was used as a model hydrophobic dye for in-vitro studies. The nanocarriers had negative, positive and neutral charge respectively. All the three nanocarriers had a particle size of less than 200 nm and a low polydispersity index. The nanoparticles were stable at gastrointestinal pH (2-9) and ionic strength (10-200mM). The nanocarriers sustained the release of Nile red in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids. ZC nanoparticles showed the slowest release followed by ZLF nanoparticles and ZPEG micelles. The nanocarriers were taken up by endocytosis in Caco-2 cells. ZPEG micelles showed the highest cell uptake and transepithelial permeability followed by ZLF and ZC nanoparticles. ZPEG micelles also showed P-gp inhibitory activity. All the three nanocarriers showed bioadhesive properties. Cy 5.5, a near IR dye was used to study the in-vivo biodistribution of the nanocarriers. The nanocarriers showed longer retention in the rat gastrointestinal tract compared to the free dye. Among the three formulations, ZC nanoparticles was retained the longest in the rat gastrointestinal tract (≥24 hours). Overall, the outcomes from this study demonstrate the structure-function relationship of core-shell protein nanocarriers. The findings from this study can be used to develop food protein based oral drug delivery systems with specific functional attributes.
