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Current glucose monitoring methods for the ever-increasing number of diabetic people around the world are invasive, painful, time-consuming, and a constant burden for the household budget. The non-invasive glucose monitoring technology overcomes these limitations, for which this topic is significantly being researched and represents an exciting and...
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... Another area where determining glucose values is very important is the health sector. Measurements to determine blood glucose levels are important in the treatment of patients with diabetes and hyperglycemia [1]. Diabetes Mellitus type I has a strong genetic component and is a very common hereditary disease today. ...
Glucose is a simple sugar molecule. The chemical formula of this sugar molecule is C6H12O6. This means that the glucose molecule contains six carbon atoms (C), twelve hydrogen atoms (H), and six oxygen atoms (O). In human blood, the molecule glucose circulates as blood sugar. Normally, after eating or drinking, our bodies break down the sugars in food and use them to obtain energy for our cells. To execute this process, our pancreas produces insulin. Insulin “pulls” sugar from the blood and puts it into the cells for use. If someone has diabetes, their pancreas cannot produce enough insulin. As a result, the level of glucose in their blood rises. This can lead to many potential complications, including blindness, disease, nerve damage, amputation, stroke, heart attack, damage to blood vessels, etc. In this study, a non-invasive and therefore easily usable method for monitoring blood glucose was developed. With the experiment carried out, it was possible to measure glucose levels continuously, thus eliminating the disadvantages of invasive systems. Near-IR sensors (optical sensors) were used to estimate the concentration of glucose in blood; these sensors have a wavelength of 940 nm. The sensor was placed on a small black parallelepiped-shaped box on the tip of the finger and the output of the optical sensor was then connected to a microcontroller at the analogue input. Another sensor used, but only to provide more medical information, was the heartbeat sensor, inserted into an armband (along with the microprocessor). After processing and linear regression analysis, the glucose level was predicted, and data were sent via the Bluetooth network to a developed APP. The results of the implemented device were compared with available invasive methods (commercial products). The hardware consisted of a microcontroller, a near-IR optical sensor, a heartbeat sensor, and a Bluetooth module. Another objective of this experiment using low-cost and low-power hardware was to not carry out complex processing of data from the sensors. Our practical laboratory experiment resulted in an error of 2.86 per cent when compared to a commercial product, with a hardware cost of EUR 8 and a consumption of 50 mA.
... 17 Further, glucose detection may also be classified on the ground of the sample collection methods; invasive and non-invasive. 18,19 Invasive procedures might be necessary when glucose levels are to be detected through blood serum, whereas unconventional methods of glucose detection, such as from saliva, 20,21 sweat, 22,23 tear 24,25 and urine 26,27 are completely noninvasive. Due to merits such as patient comfort and potential of continuous monitoring, these non-invasive methods have bright prospects as next-generation detection strategies and therefore have been widely explored recently. ...
CuO nanostructures grown on flexible Cu foil by a simple chemical bath deposition in a solution of aqueous ammonia have been explored for non-invasive and nonenzymatic detection of salivary glucose. The nanostructured electrode developed with 100 μl of aqueous ammonia achieves a high sensitivity of 3243 μA mM⁻¹ cm⁻², linear range up to 3 mM, and limit of detection of 0.77 μM. The electrode also demonstrates good anti-interference properties, high reproducibility, repeatability, and long-term stability up to 30 days. In addition, the electrode exhibits remarkable sensitivity of 2865 μA mM⁻¹ cm⁻² for salivary glucose detection. To explore its potential for non-invasive detection of actual salivary glucose, pre-prandial and post-prandial salivary glucose of different human volunteers were measured using the electrode and were found to be correlated with corresponding blood glucose levels. Development and investigation of similar sensors for non-invasive detection via untraditional methods would certainly pave the way towards next generation glucose monitoring devices and systems.
... 1 Data from the sensor are transmitted wirelessly to the receiver, either a cell phone or a dedicated reader. 2 In some models, the sensor and transmitter are 1 combined piece that is disposable. Other systems have reusable transmitters that may need to be charged. ...
... This source waves can easily infiltrate into the biological tissues of humans in millimetre thickness. This benefaction is the advantageous compared to the optical method specially in the lowfrequency range, as microwave radiation can easily penetrate deep into the body tissue and it is less scattered into the atmosphere and obtain more pragmatic blood glucose concentration information [7]. The body tissues are very closely related to the dielectric properties, and the glucose concentrations vary with the dielectric constant values [8,9]. ...
A novel highly sensitive and compact slotted microstrip antenna sensor consisting of slots with defected ground structure is designed. The substrate used in the design of antenna is FR-4 of concise dimensions 30 × 30 × 1.6 mm3 and the developed antenna resonates at 3 GHz. The human finger consisting of several layers namely bone, blood, fat and skin is modelled in the electromagnetic simulation (Computer Simulation Technology) environment resulting in finger phantom. The finger phantom is situated at different locations on proposed antenna for evaluating the concentrations of glucose from 0 to 1000 (mg/dL) and the corresponding shift in frequencies are estimated. For detection of glucose concentration in human blood, the obtained frequency shifts in the proposed work are used. In this proposed work, at the top side of proposed antenna, the finger phantom is situated, an uttermost shift in frequency of 48 MHz, sensitivity of 48 KHz/(mg/dL) and a least possible shift in frequency of 24 MHz, sensitivity of 24 KHz/(mg/dL) are obtained.
... This is the reference method to diagnose GDM in Chile. Fasting and post-load plasma glucose were quantified by the hexokinase method [33]. The Chilean diagnostic criteria were used, i.e., subjects with fasting glycemia between 100 and 125 mg/Dl, or post-load glycemia higher than 140 mg/Dl (75 g, 2 h), were diagnosed with GDM [34]. ...
Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a hyperglycemic state that is typically diagnosed by an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), which is unpleasant, time-consuming, has low reproducibility, and results are tardy. The machine learning (ML) predictive models that have been proposed to improve GDM diagnosis are usually based on instrumental methods that take hours to produce a result. Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy is a simple, fast, and low-cost analytical technique that has never been assessed for the prediction of GDM. This study aims to develop ML predictive models for GDM based on NIR spectroscopy, and to evaluate their potential as early detection or alternative screening tools according to their predictive power and duration of analysis. Serum samples from the first trimester (before GDM diagnosis) and the second trimester (at the time of GDM diagnosis) of pregnancy were analyzed by NIR spectroscopy. Four spectral ranges were considered, and 80 mathematical pretreatments were tested for each. NIR data-based models were built with single- and multi-block ML techniques. Every model was subjected to double cross-validation. The best models for first and second trimester achieved areas under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.5768 ± 0.0635 and 0.8836 ± 0.0259, respectively. This is the first study reporting NIR-spectroscopy-based methods for the prediction of GDM. The developed methods allow for prediction of GDM from 10 µL of serum in only 32 min. They are simple, fast, and have a great potential for application in clinical practice, especially as alternative screening tools to the OGTT for GDM diagnosis.
... The key to diabetes treatment is to control blood glucose levels [1,2]. In recent years, glucose monitoring has shifted from invasive to minimally invasive and noninvasive techniques, with an increasing number of studies focusing on noninvasive glucose monitoring techniques [3,4]. Although researchers have conducted many studies on electrochemical methods [5][6][7][8], these methods still have the disadvantages of a short lifespan, poor measurement safety, and weak resistance to electromagnetic interference. ...
Waveguide Bragg grating (WBG) blood glucose sensing, as a biological sensing technology with broad application prospects, plays an important role in the fields of health management and medical treatment. In this work, a polymer-based cascaded WBG is applied to glucose detection. We investigated photonic devices with two different grating structures cascaded—a crossed grating and a bilateral grating—and analyzed the effects of the crossed grating period, bilateral grating period, and number of grating periods on the sensing performance of the glucose sensor. Finally, the spectral reflectance characteristics, response time, and sensing specificity of the cascaded WBG were evaluated. The experimental results showed that the glucose sensor has a sensitivity of 175 nm/RIU in a glucose concentration range of 0–2 mg/ml and has the advantages of high integration, a narrow bandwidth, and low cost.
... However, the development of implantable electrochemical electrodes also faces several challenges [21][22][23]. Firstly, due to a relatively long length, implantable electrochemical electrodes are prone to nerve contact, leading to pain and bleeding with the risk of infection. ...
Real-time monitoring of physiological indicators inside the body is pivotal for contemporary diagnostics and treatments. Implantable electrodes can not only track specific biomarkers but also facilitate therapeutic interventions. By modifying biometric components, implantable electrodes enable in situ metabolite detection in living tissues, notably beneficial in invasive glucose monitoring, which effectively alleviates the self-blood-glucose-managing burden for patients. However, the development of implantable electrochemical electrodes, especially multi-channel sensing devices, still faces challenges: (1) The complexity of direct preparation hinders functionalized or multi-parameter sensing on a small scale. (2) The fine structure of individual electrodes results in low spatial resolution for sensor functionalization. (3) There is limited conductivity due to simple device structures and weakly conductive electrode materials (such as silicon or polymers). To address these challenges, we developed multiple-channel electrochemical microneedle electrode arrays (MCEMEAs) via a separated functionalization and assembly process. Two-dimensional microneedle (2dMN)-based and one-dimensional microneedle (1dMN)-based electrodes were prepared by laser patterning, which were then modified as sensing electrodes by electrochemical deposition and glucose oxidase decoration to achieve separated functionalization and reduce mutual interference. The electrodes were then assembled into 2dMN- and 1dMN-based multi-channel electrochemical arrays (MCEAs), respectively, to avoid damaging functionalized coatings. In vitro and in vivo results demonstrated that the as-prepared MCEAs exhibit excellent transdermal capability, detection sensitivity, selectivity, and reproducibility, which was capable of real-time, in situ glucose concentration monitoring.
... Another area where determining glucose values is very important is the health sector. Measurements to determine blood glucose levels are important in the treatment of patients with diabetes and hyperglycemia [1]. Diabetes Mellitus is a very common hereditary disease today; It causes blindness, heart attack, kidney failure, amputation and, in later stages, death. ...
Glucose is a simple sugar molecule. The sugar molecule is chemically symbolised as C6H12O6. This means that the glucose molecule contains 6 carbon atoms (C), 12 hydrogen atoms (H) and 6 oxygen atoms (O). In human blood, the molecule glucose circulates as blood sugar. Normally after eating or drinking, our body breaks down the sugars in food and uses them to obtain energy for our cells. To do this, our pancreas produces insulin. Insulin "pulls" sugar from the blood and puts it into the cells for use. If someone has diabetes, their pancreas can't produce enough insulin. As a result, the level of glucose in the blood rises. This can lead one to many potential complications, including blindness, disease, nerve damage, amputation, stroke, heart attack and damage to blood vessels etc. In this study, a non-invasive method for monitoring blood glucose has been developed and is therefore easily usable. The device developed can measure the glucose level continuously and eliminates the disadvantages of the invasive system. Near-IR sensors (optical sensors) were used to estimate the concentration of glucose in the blood; these sensors have a wavelength of 940 nm. The sensor is placed on the tip of the finger and the output of the optical sensor is then connected to the microcontroller at the analogue input. Another sensor used, but only to provide more medical information was the heartbeat sensor. After processing and regression analysis, the glucose level is predicted, and data is sent via the Bluetooth network to a developed APP. The results of the implemented device were compared with available invasive methods. The study consists of a hardware platform inserted into an armband and then a small black parallelepiped-shaped box in which the optical sensors are inserted. The hardware consists of a microcontroller, a Near-IR optical sensor, a heartbeat sensor and a Bluetooth module.
... However, these approaches frequently encounter challenges related to accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity. Moreover, they often necessitate intricate sample preparation procedures and sophisticated instrumentation, rendering them impractical for point-of-care or home-based testing [8][9][10]. ...
In this paper, our objective is to design and model a hybrid biosensor for the purpose of monitoring glycosuria. Our proposed hybrid sensor employs a detection mechanism that combines the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technique with WGM excitation. This fusion of techniques aims to amplify the sensitivity obtained in our previous work. For this purpose, two concepts have been developed. The first concept involves adding a metal film that encloses a silicon disk at the center of the WGM microring cavity, while the second concept involves inserting a metal disk into the middle of the WGM microring resonator. Evaluation of these two structures using finite element method (FEM) revealed that the first concept demonstrates superior performance. It maintains a relatively high Q-factor, enables nanoscale light confinement beyond the diffraction limit, and exhibits relatively low propagation losses, all of which contribute to improved sensitivity. Various simulations were conducted to optimize the selected hybrid biosensor, taking into account the type and thickness of the metal film. This optimization resulted in the achievement of high performance in glycosuria detection. Specifically, it exhibited a sensitivity of \(117.47 \textrm{nm}/RIU\), an ultra-narrow full width at half maximum (FWHM) of \(0.053 \textrm{nm}\), leading to a very high Q-factor of approximately \(3.56 \times 10^4\). Furthermore, it demonstrated an outstanding figure of merit reaching \(2.23 \times 10^3 RUI^{-1}\).
... These add-up to medical specific technologies such as Holter [13] or continuous glucose monitoring trackers [24]. The versatility of biosensor technology allows to get mechanical, physiological or biochemical information, thereby allowing the measurement of physical activity [8], heart rate and electrocardiogram measurements [29], pulse oxymetry [42] or blood glucose levels [50]. Digital biomarkers are a recently coined term for denominating this multisource and rich stream of information [36]. ...
