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Titanium has been widely used in biomedical implant applications due to its excellent mechanical properties and biocompatibility. However, manufacturing titanium was quite challenging due to the need for high temperature while having high reactivity. Therefore, spark plasma sintering (SPS) is proposed as an advance rapid sintering technique which a...
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Metals and alloys, including stainless steel, titanium and its alloys, cobalt alloys, and other metals and alloys have been widely used clinically as implant materials, but implant-related infection or inflammation is still one of the main causes of implantation failure. The bacterial infection or inflammation that seriously threatens human health...
Functional gradient materials (FGMs), as a modern group of materials, can provide multiple functions and are able to well mimic the hierarchical and gradient structure of natural systems. Because biomedical implants usually substitute the bone tissues and bone is an organic, natural FGM material, it seems quite reasonable to use the FGM concept in...
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... For example, the grain size of SPSed samples was managed by adjusting the sintering temperature and heating rate, where a high heating rate and low sintering temperature led to a smaller grain size. Accordingly, considerable research has been focused on fabricating Ti-based alloys with high relative density, targeted microstructure, and suitable mechanical properties by SPS [25][26][27][28]. In this regard, Shahedi Asl et al. [28] have demonstrated that the Ti sample with the greatest relative density (99.8%) and optimum mechanical properties was achieved by SPS at 1200 °C. ...
... Most of these studies have indicated that an increase in Nb content not only facilitates the attainment of a favorable microstructure but also enhances mechanical properties. Concurrently, recent investigations have emphasized the potential of the SPS method in fabricating Ti-Nb alloys with a dense, porosity-free structure, leading to advantageous mechanical features [25][26][27][28]. Therefore, the convergence of these two aspects-investigating the synthesis of Ti-Nb alloys with a high Nb content through the SPS method-addresses an existing research gap in the field of Ti-Nb alloys. ...
... Moreover, at this temperature, undissolved Nb was not observed in the Ti-40Nb alloys. Ensuring uniform distribution of elements poses a substantial challenge during the fabrication of alloys using SPS [26]. As can be seen in Fig. 3, the EDS analysis demonstrated that, after SPS, a relatively homogeneous distribution of Ti and Nb throughout all the samples, and no significant segregation was observed for any of the elements. ...
This study aimed to investigate the effects of Nb on the microstructure and mechanical behavior of Ti-xNb alloys (x = 34–44 at%) fabricated by spark plasma sintering (SPS). The effects of SPS temperature (1050–1350 °C) on Ti-40Nb were evaluated to determine the optimal temperature for sintering Ti-xNb alloys. Ti-40Nb sintered at 1250 °C and 30 MPa performed best. The Ti-xNb alloys underwent sintering at 1250 °C and 30 MPa. Results revealed that Nb content did not significantly affect the microstructure of Ti-Nb alloys. The hardness, ultimate tensile strength (UTS), and bending strength of alloys initially increased as Nb content rose from 32 to 40 at%, but then decreased when Nb was further raised to 44 at%. The relative density played the main role in determining the mechanical performance of samples. Among the samples, Ti-40Nb exhibited favorable mechanical properties in terms of hardness, UTS, Young’s modulus, and bending strength.
... Possessing superior capabilities such as high specific strength, corrosion resistance, and good biocompatibility, titanium and its alloys are widely used in various fields including aviation and aerospace, marine engineering, biomedical, electric power, and chemical industries [1][2][3]. As a solid solution strengthening element in titanium alloys, Cu can not only generate eutectoid transformation to achieve precipitation strengthening but induce columnar-to-equiaxed grain transition and refine grains [4,5]. ...
... 41 Još jedan od važnijih aspekata je oseointegracija. 43 To je pojam koji se odnosi na stvaranje izravne strukturalne i funkcionalne vezu između umjetnog implantata i žive kosti te upravlja raznim svojstvima površine kao što su: sastav, hrapavost, površinska napetost, površinska energija i tekstura. 27 U razvoju oseointegracije ključna je međufazna zona između kosti i implantata titana, a važnu ulogu u uspjehu oseointegracije ima i oksidni sloj na površini implantata. ...
... Potražnja za biomaterijalima posljednjih godina u stalnom je porastu zbog sve većeg udjela starije populacije u stanovništvu kao i zbog sve veće prosječne težine ljudi. 43,49 U različitim dijelovima ljudskog tijela biomaterijali se upotrebljavaju kao stentovi u krvnim žilama, umjetni zalisci u srcu, zamjenski implantati u kukovima, koljenima, ušima, ramenima, laktima i zubnim strukturama. Također se upotrebljavaju kao srčani simulatori te za rekonstrukciju urinarnog i probavnog trakta. ...
... 49 Poznato je da metali imaju bolju mehaničku čvrstoću od polimera kao i od većine keramičkih materijala, zbog toga metalni biomaterijali imaju važnu ulogu u rekonstrukciji oštećenog tvrdog tkiva. 43 Jedan od prvih biomaterijala bila je legura poznata kao "vanadijev čelik", no zbog neotpornosti na koroziju više nije u upotrebi. 50 Materijali koji se danas upotrebljavaju za biomedicinske primjene su uglavnom metalni materijali kao što su: nehrđajući čelik 316 L, legure na bazi titana te legure na bazi kobalt-kroma. ...
... However, these alloys may lead to health problems since they can release harmful V and Al ions into host tissue. V may cause allergic reactions, while Al, upon longterm implantation, can cause Alzheimer's disease [5,6]. In addition, the elastic modulus of these alloys (105-115 GPa) gives a large mismatch in stiffness with human cortical bone (~ 35 GPa), which can cause a stress shielding effect, leading to the implant becoming loose [7,8,9]. ...
Ti-Mo alloys have received increasing attention for use in biomedical applications due to their non-toxic alloying elements, reasonable cost and suitable properties. In the present study, the effects of elemental Mo powder additions (5, 7.5, 10 and 15 wt%) on the physical, mechanical and corrosion properties in commercially pure Ti fabricated by metal injection moulding (MIM) and sintered at 1250 and 1350 °C were investigated. It was found that tensile strength increases with increasing Mo content mainly due to solid solution strengthening. However, the strain to failure of the alloys is variable and is influenced by the formation of TiCx, the relative sintered density and by impurities depending on the Mo content and sintering temperature. From the present study the optimum alloy is Ti-7.5Mo, sintered at 1250 °C for 2 h, which offers a satisfactory balance between suitable tensile properties, high relative density (> 96.5%), and excellent corrosion resistance in an artificial saliva environment. Ti-Mo alloys can also tolerate impurities up to 0.5 wt% (Oxygen equivalent, Oeq) without any significant reduction in ductility, which is a practical advantage for manufacturing and is attractive for biomedical applications.
Graphical Abstract
... Titanium (Ti) and its alloys are used as the main materials in the manufacturing of bone implants [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]. These materials are characterized by high durability with low density as well as high elasticity, which is five times higher than that of human bones [16]. ...
This review considered various methods for depositing special modifying coatings on medical implants made of titanium alloys including techniques such as electrochemical deposition, sol–gel process, atmospheric plasma deposition, and PVD methods (magnetron sputtering and vacuum arc deposition). The rationale is provided for the use of modifying coatings to improve the performance efficiency of implants. The concept of a functional multilayer coating designed for products operating in the human body environment is proposed. The advantages and disadvantages of various methods for depositing coatings are considered based on the possibility of their use for obtaining modifying coatings for medical purposes deposited on a titanium alloy base.
... One of the advantages of SPS method is the formation of fine-grained structure with excellent mechanical properties and lower sintering temperatures [137]. Zou et al. [138] studied the mechanical properties of Ti-35Nb-7Zr-7Ta prepared by SPS method. ...
The necessity for biomedical components is increasing every year. However, Ti6Al4V, the most widely utilized titanium alloy for biomedical implants are very costly owing to the high price of V alloying element. Furthermore, both alloying elements Al and V, have adverse effects in human body which is not desirable. This review paper highlights significant findings on alloy design using low-cost alloying elements, their processing routes, and their relationship to microstructural, mechanical, and biological properties. Mo, Fe, Mn, Zr, and Cu were identified as low-cost alloying elements and fabrication of titanium alloys with these elements are usually carried out using arc melting, investment casting, powder metallurgy, additive manufacturing, diffusion couple, and thermomechanical processing. Several processing routes can be chosen to obtain optimum properties such as β-phase titanium alloy structure, low elastic modulus, and high strength. Alloy design, post-heat treatment process, and fatigue test for newly developed alloys are research that can be carried out in the future for the development of new titanium materials that are safe for human use and at a more affordable price.
... Titanium has been used as artificial bone materials under biomechanical load-bearing conditions because these substances have excellent mechanical properties and biocompatibility [1][2][3][4]. However, the elastic modulus of Ti (106.4 ...
Bioactivity and stress shielding are the most important problems of medical implanted porous titanium. In this study, porous titanium with 40% porosity was prepared by one-step spark plasma sintered (SPS) technology, and the surface of porous titanium was modified by a simplified alkali treatment method. The effects of a high concentration on pore properties, mechanical properties, and biological activities of porous titanium were investigated. The results show that the surface of porous titanium treated with a high concentration of alkali forms an interconnected network layer, which provides nucleation points for the formation of apatite. Porous titanium can still meet the requirements of hard tissue replacement after treatment with high-concentration alkali solution (yield strength (130 MPa) and elastic modulus (6.0 GPa)). A layer of apatite is formed on the surface of porous titanium after alkali treatment. The ability of inducing apatite formation increases with the increase of lye concentration. In addition, the results of proliferation and live dead cell staining of bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSC) showed that alkali treatment had no toxic effect on the cells. With the increase of concentration, the cell activity was significantly enhanced. Therefore, the bioactive porous titanium modified with simplified alkali has a good medical prospect as artificial bone material.
... In addition to assisting cell attachment, growth, division and differentiation, biocompatible metal implants should also facilitate the movement of nutrients and metabolic wastes (Ryan et al., 2008;Koolen et al., 2020;Lv et al., 2021;Rana et al., 2021). The traditional methods for manufacturing porous implant materials include powder metallurgy (Ryan et al., 2008;Nicoara et al., 2016;Rodriguez-Contreras et al., 2021), freeze drying (Sachlos and Czernuszka, 2003;Murphy et al., 2010), gas foaming (Sachlos and Czernuszka, 2003), spark plasma sintering (Annur et al., 2021), and open-pore titanium foam (Imwinkelried, 2007). However, the abovementioned porous materials have characteristics such as small pores, uneven pore distributions, poor permeability or numerous micropores within the pore wall structure that hinder their applications as biomaterials (Ryan et al., 2008;Koolen et al., 2020;Lv et al., 2021). ...
Titanium and titanium alloy implants are essential for bone tissue regeneration engineering. The current trend is toward the manufacture of implants from materials that mimic the structure, composition and elasticity of bones. Titanium and titanium alloy implants, the most common materials for implants, can be used as a bone conduction material but cannot promote osteogenesis. In clinical practice, there is a high demand for implant surfaces that stimulate bone formation and accelerate bone binding, thus shortening the implantation-to-loading time and enhancing implantation success. To avoid stress shielding, the elastic modulus of porous titanium and titanium alloy implants must match that of bone. Micro-arc oxidation technology has been utilized to increase the surface activity and build a somewhat hard coating on porous titanium and titanium alloy implants. More recently, a growing number of researchers have combined micro-arc oxidation with hydrothermal, ultrasonic, and laser treatments, coatings that inhibit bacterial growth, and acid etching with sand blasting methods to improve bonding to bone. This paper summarizes the reaction at the interface between bone and implant material, the porous design principle of scaffold material, MAO technology and the combination of MAO with other technologies in the field of porous titanium and titanium alloys to encourage their application in the development of medical implants.
... where K is the diffusion rate, A is the Arrhenius constant, Ea is the activation energy, R is the molar gas constant, and T is the thermodynamic temperature. With the heat fluctuations, the probability of obtaining atoms with sufficient energy to diffuse across the barrier increases and the diffusion rate of the element increases with increasing temperature [23]. ...
... With the increase of sintering temperature (975 °C), the surface of 2 # sample ( Figure 4b) shows an excellent sintered morphology of powder metallurgy, with no element-enriched areas and less hole defects on the surface. The favorable sintered state was the basis for giving the material excellent mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, etc. [23]. During the sintering process with the higher sintering temperature, the higher plasma capacity was generated by the discharge. ...
... where K is the diffusion rate, A is the Arrhenius constant, Ea is the activation energy, R is the molar gas constant, and T is the thermodynamic temperature. With the heat fluctuations, the probability of obtaining atoms with sufficient energy to diffuse across the barrier increases and the diffusion rate of the element increases with increasing temperature [23]. Secondly, a small number of holes can be observed. ...
Bacterial infection and stress shielding are important issues in orthopedic implants. In this study, Ag element was selected as an antibacterial agent to develop an antibacterial Ti-40Nb-10Ag alloy by spark plasma sintering (SPS). The microstructure, phase constitution, mechanical properties, microhardness, and antibacterial properties of the Ti-40Nb-10Ag sintered alloys with different sintering temperatures were systematically studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), microhardness tests, compressive tests, and antibacterial tests. The Ti-40Nb-10Ag alloys were mainly composed of α-Ti, β-Ti, and Ti2Ag intermetallic phases. This study shows that the change in sintering temperature affects the microstructure of the alloy, which results in changes in its microhardness, compressive strength, elastic modulus, and antibacterial properties. At the sintering temperature of 975 °C, good metallurgical bonding was developed on the surface of the alloy, which led to excellent microhardness, compressive strength, elastic modulus, and antibacterial ability with an antibacterial rate of 95.6%. In conclusion, the Ti-40Nb-10Ag alloy prepared by SPS at 975 °C is ideal and effective for orthopedic implant.
... The manufacturing of orthopedical implants with low elastic modulus materials is an essential issue for the implantation success once it can properly transmit the biomechanical loads to the adjacent bone tissues and avoid the stress shielding effect. 45,46 Furthermore, the samples displayed microhardness values above all the commercial biomedical materials. The TiZrNbTaMo sample exhibited a higher value (509 HV) than the TiZrNbTaMn (467 HV) due to the role of Mo in the solid solution hardening and the secondary HCP phase in the phase precipitation strengthening. ...
This study produced non-equiatomic TiNbZrTaMn and TiNbZrTaMo high entropy alloy (HEAs) by argon arc-melting and heat-treated for microstructural homogenization. The phase composition, microstructure, and selected mechanical properties were measured and compared with theoretical predictions. Additionally, electrochemical and cytotoxicity tests evaluated their potential applicability for use as biomaterials. X-ray diffraction measurements patterns showed a single BCC phase for the TiNbZrTaMn and a secondary HCP phase for the TiNbZrTaMo sample. The microstructural analysis revealed the formation of irregular grain boundaries and some lamellae formation, with chemical segregation of the alloying elements at the sub-micro-scale. The samples exhibited elastic modulus (80–110 GPa) closer to CP-Ti grade 2 (100 GPa) and higher Vickers microhardness (450–550 HV) than Ti–6Al–4V alloy (400 HV). The electrochemical and biological tests indicated a superior corrosion resistance against 0.9% NaCl solution compared with commercial metallic biomaterials, with proper cell adhesion and viability of pre-osteoblastic cells and hydrophilic behavior. Altogether, the data indicate that TiNbZrTaMn depicts better applicability potential for being used as a biomaterial in biomedical applications than some commercial materials (SS 316L, CP-Ti grade 2, and Ti–6Al–4V), mainly considering load-bearing orthopedical implants.
