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Schematic illustration of the microstructure of a cellulosic fiber. a Plant/wood fiber, fibril aggregate, and nanofibril (containing cellulose chains) associated with lignin and hemicellulose. b Cross section and longitudinal section showing the crystalline and disordered regions of a cellulose nanofibril embedded in lignin and hemicellulose matrix
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Cellulose is the most abundant polysaccharide on Earth. It can be obtained from a vast number of sources, e.g. cell walls of wood and plants, some species of bacteria, and algae, as well as tunicates, which are the only known cellulose-containing animals. This inherent abundance naturally paves the way for discovering new applications for this vers...
Citations
... It can be classified into cellulose filaments, cellulose fibers, cellulose micro/nanofibrils, and cellulose crystals. Every cellulosic particle has a specific size, crystallinity, aspect ratio, morphology, and physicochemical properties (Seddiqi et al. 2021). It is the main component of plant fibers enclosed by hemicellulose and lignin. ...
... Cellulose and cellulose derivatives are synthesized via condensation polymerization of glucose derived from different sources, such as plant fibers (e.g., cotton, wood, and bamboo), algae, bacteria, and marine organisms. These polymeric substances represent the most abundant renewable biopolymers in the environment (Gökmen and Pekel Bayramgil, 2022;Seddiqi et al., 2021;Yaacoubi and Dumée, 2023). A primary derivative of water-insoluble cellulose is hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) biopolymer. ...
The energy and petrochemical sectors are expected to rely on crude oil and its derivatives for decades to come. Therefore, developing more sustainable and environmentally friendly approaches to oil production is becoming increasingly important. One approach that supports this goal involves the utilization of sustainable materials in oil recovery operations. This review discusses the role of biodegradable materials in enhanced oil recovery operations and produced water management. It has been demonstrated that conventional synthetic chemicals can be effectively substituted with biodegradable alternatives such as biosurfactants, biopolymers, biogenic acids, and biogenic solvents. These biodegradable substitutes reduce the environmental impact resulting from synthetic chemicals used in enhanced oil recovery. In produced water management, biodegradable materials are utilized in treatment processes such as demulsification, coagulation, flocculation, adsorption, and filtration. These processes are designed to eliminate a variety of contaminants from wastewater generated during oil production operations. Commonly, these contaminants include dissolved ions, dissolved and dispersed organic materials, heavy metals, radionuclides, production solids such as scale deposits and corrosion byproducts, and chemical additives including biocides, corrosion inhibitors, emulsifiers, and polymers. This review could assist researchers and policymakers in adopting biodegradable materials for more environmentally sustainable oil recovery operations.
... Given that the change in the crystallization rate can be correlated with the change in crystallization mechanism, in that case, atypical depression of crystal growth may appear on the occasion of this transition. The indicated transition probably includes transformation of cellulose I crystallites into a more stable form, cellulose II, which has a more ordered structure (ordered crystallites) (allomorphs transformation) [65]. This is described by reaction model expressed through Eq. (7). ...
The aim of this study is to explain the consequences of the occurrence of enthalpy–entropy compensation (EEC) and isoequilibrium relationship during slow pyrolysis of cigarette butt filters (CBFs), consisting cellulose acetate (AC) as the main component. By using model-free and model-based kinetic methods and thermodynamic calculations, the complete reaction mechanism and extrathermodynamic issues about investigated process are completely resolved. It was established that compensation phenomenon where isoequilibrium temperature occurs is a consequence of formation of low-entropy molecular structure (cellulose II) and breaking of hydrogen bonds. Consequently, it was concluded that mechanisms which include a formation of low-entropy molecular structure and H-bonds breakage enter the changes in both enthalpy and entropy, which compensate each other. For the cellulose II generation, it was necessary to invest energy which represents use up energy. This “wasted” energy turns into work for creation of cellulose II molecular structures, whereby additional energy was provided from “local” decomposition reactions (which were identified in the established process mechanism) that arise from pyrolysis of starting material. Therefore, it was concluded that for “local reactions”, a negative ΔS° value was identified, but for the global process, the entropy change retained a positive value. Considering thermodynamic effects manifested through compensation temperature found below glass transition temperature (Tg) in the undercooling conditions, it was concluded that small amounts of plasticizers affect reduction of free volume in the glassy state. Obtained results indicated a decrease in β-relaxation mode of cellulose acetate by an abatement of the polymer free volume.
Graphical abstract
... [9] Cellulose is hydrophilic, and most abundant renewable materials which make them very attractive for diverse application such as food industry, adhesive, drug delivery, pharmaceutic, papermaking and so on. [10][11][12] Paper surfaces are treated with some chemicals using kaolin, TiO 2 , CaCO 3 . The amount and type of filler varies depending on manufacturer and area of usage. ...
Forensic document examination has been considered one of the most important fields in the forensic science. For this, a quick, effective, and cheap techniques for evaluation of forensic evidence is highly required. This study explores the comparison of A4 document paper by chemical and physical analysis. 16 of white A4 paper from different brands were analyzed by FTIR for investigation of structural characteristics. Video Spectral Comparator 8000 has been used to compare the A4 papers under different light source. The inorganic filler composition in the paper is also explored by ICP‐OES. The calcium carbonate content in document papers play a discriminant role which found to be between 16.02 % and 35.54 %. Also, water contact angle has been utilized in order to examine the surface of paper which is generally related to the inorganic filler and other additives. The WCA results ranged between 83° and 111° that enable quick and easy way to compare A4 document papers. The experimental results have demonstrated that besides FTIR methods, other methods such as ICP‐OES for elemental composition, WCA for wetting test, VSC for visualization under different light of source could have been applied for comparison of document papers in case of criminal cases.
... Some chemical treatments, like TEMPO oxidation and carboxymethylation, can disintegrate the fibers and dissolve them to produce a transparent hydrogel. The various forms of cellulose all have different aspect ratios, solubility, and rheological properties (Seddiqi et al. 2021). It is vital to understand the rheological properties of neat untreated CNF suspensions to simplify processing, reduce cost, and expand their use in different matrix materials. ...
Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) are a versatile natural material which are currently in use as a reinforcing agent in composite materials. Cellulose composites have a diverse range of applications because of their high strength to weight properties. Neat CNFs readily disperse in water to form a viscous slurry-like suspension making them an easy material to incorporate into composites; however, CNF suspensions have complex rheological properties, and it is vital to understand these properties to optimize their use. Suspensions of CNFs are structured fluids with unique rheological properties. Most notably, they can form stable networked gels at higher concentrations, resisting flow. While there are robust studies of CNF suspensions at ambient and above temperatures, there is little data on the behavior of aqueous CNF suspensions down to 0 ºC. Rheological studies were performed on aqueous CNF suspensions of variable concentrations to map their flow properties below ambient temperatures. The CNF suspensions were made by diluting neat CNF stock without any chemical modifications (e.g., oxidation, base dissolution). At 0.5 wt%, CNF suspensions displayed gel-like properties, but only the 1 wt% CNF suspensions did not flow upon tilting. The viscosity of the CNF suspensions showed an inverse relationship to temperature down to 2 °C regardless of concentration. The yield strength of higher wt% CNF gels demonstrated a similar trend, increasing with both increasing cellulose concentration and decreasing temperature. Cellulose suspensions were confirmed to be shear thinning at low temperatures and demonstrated tunable gel strength and viscosity, which can be utilized for a variety of applications where processing at low temperatures is important.
... Cellulose is the most common carbohydrate found in nature (Seddiqi et al., 2021). It garnered substantial interest as a desirable replacement material, because of its beneficial features, including being harmless, biodegradable and biocompatible, chemical durability, low prices, and significant hydrophilic nature, which makes it an ideal solution for the production of biologically compatible hydrogels (Ciolacu and Suflet, 2018). ...
Periodontitis is an inflammation-related condition, caused by an infectious microbiome and host defense that causes damage to periodontium. The natural processes of the mouth, like saliva production and eating, significantly diminish therapeutic medication residency in the region of periodontal disease. Furthermore, the complexity and diversity of pathological mechanisms make successful periodontitis treatment challenging. As a result, developing enhanced local drug delivery technologies and logical therapy procedures provides the foundation for effective periodontitis treatment. Being biocompatible, biodegradable, and easily administered to the periodontal tissues, hydrogels have sparked substantial an intense curiosity in the discipline of periodontal therapy. The primary objective of hydrogel research has changed in recent years to intelligent thermosensitive hydrogels, that involve local adjustable sol-gel transformations and regulate medication release in reaction to temperature, we present a thorough introduction to the creation and efficient construction of new intelligent thermosensitive hydrogels for periodontal regeneration. We also address cutting-edge smart hydrogel treatment options based on periodontitis pathophysiology. Furthermore, the problems and prospective study objectives are reviewed, with a focus on establishing effective hydrogel delivery methods and prospective clinical applications.
... In recent years, the use of biomass products has led to the development of materials, particularly polysaccharide-based (i.e., sodium alginate, cellulose, chitin, starch) and protein-based (i.e., silk, sericin, zein, keratin, soy protein) materials, with good biocompatibility [28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35]. Among them, wool keratin is a natural animal fiber protein that can be extracted from by-products of the textile industry and used to fabricate materials for biomedical applications [36][37][38][39]. ...
The frontiers of antibacterial materials in the biomedical field are constantly evolving since infectious diseases are a continuous threat to human health. In this work, waste-wool-derived keratin electrospun nanofibers were blended with copper by an optimized impregnation procedure to fabricate antibacterial membranes with intrinsic biological activity, excellent degradability and good cytocompatibility. The keratin/copper complex electrospun nanofibers were multi-analytically characterized and the main differences in their physical-chemical features were related to the crosslinking effect caused by Cu 2+. Indeed, copper ions modified the thermal profiles, improving the thermal stability (evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetry), and changed the infrared vibrational features (determined by infrared spectroscopy) and the chemical composition (studied by an X-ray energy-dispersive spectroscopy probe and optical emission spectrometry). The copper impregnation process also affected the morphology, leading to partial nanofiber swelling, as evidenced by scanning electron microscopy analyses. Then, the membranes were successfully tested as antibacterial materials against gram-negative bacteria, Escherichia coli. Regarding cytocompatibility, in vitro assays performed with L929 cells showed good levels of cell adhesion and proliferation (XTT assay), and no significant cytotoxic effect, in comparison to bare keratin nanofibers. Given these results, the material described in this work can be suitable for use as antibiotic-free fibers for skin wound dressing or membranes for guided tissue regeneration.
... In this way, methylation and hydroxypropylation are carried out at the same time, which often leads to the terminal hydroxyl on the hydroxypropyl structure being blocked by methyl. The molecular structure will be therefore more complicated, which leads to variability of products' performance [23]. For this reason, it is becoming increasingly important to obtain HPMC with a controllable molecular mass and degree of substitution. ...
Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) with controllable viscosity average molecular mass (Mη) and degree of substitution had been successfully synthesized in this article. α-cellulose was firstly methylated to be methyl cellulose (MC) by dimethyl sulphate (DMS). Then MC was hydroxypropylated to be HPMC by propylene oxide (PO). In this way, the end capping structure that methoxy group connected to terminal hydroxyl group of hydroxypropyl had been avoided. FT-IR,¹H NMR and ¹³C NMR showed the successful synthesis of products with expected structure. The dilute hydrochloric acid was used to degrade HPMC to obtain a range of products with different Mη measured by ubbelohde viscometer. The rheological properties of HPMC solution with different molecular mass and concentrations were studied, including flow behavior index, thixotropy, entanglement concentration (C**), gelation temperature (Tgel), degelation temperature (Tsol). The results showed that the flow behavior index of HPMC solutions decreased with the increase of molecular mass and concentration, and gradually changed from Newtonian fluid to pseudoplastic fluid. In this article, Tgel and Tsol of HPMC both increased with the increase of molecular mass. When wt = 14%, Mη = 140 kDa, the maximum Tgel and Tsol was separately up to 70.18 °C and 46.81 °C. The effect of concentration on Tgel and Tsol was not noticeable. Tgel changed within 60 ± 2 °C and Tsol decreased from 40.56 °C to 35.72 °C as the concentration increased from 14 to 20%. These rheological studies are expected to provide data for subsequent processing and molding of HPMC capsules.
... Biofuel represents a form of sustainable and environmentally benign energy that is the subject of ongoing and dedicated pursuit within the scientific community. The growing shortage of fossil fuels requires the search for and utilization of such renewable bioenergy from fermentable polysaccharides in which lignocellulose, majorly composed of cellulose, is a considerable source to realize this substitution [1,2]. As the most abundant organic matter on earth, cellulose is a linear macromolecular polysaccharide composed of D-glucose with β-1,4-glycosidic linkages, encompassing the cell walls of both wood and plants, as well as microbial-based cellulose [1]. ...
... The growing shortage of fossil fuels requires the search for and utilization of such renewable bioenergy from fermentable polysaccharides in which lignocellulose, majorly composed of cellulose, is a considerable source to realize this substitution [1,2]. As the most abundant organic matter on earth, cellulose is a linear macromolecular polysaccharide composed of D-glucose with β-1,4-glycosidic linkages, encompassing the cell walls of both wood and plants, as well as microbial-based cellulose [1]. Embraced in the saccharification and fermentation process, cellulose degradation is of great importance in the treatment of lignocellulosic biomass, such as agricultural byproducts and wastes [3,4]. ...
Enzyme-production microorganisms typically occupy a dominant position in composting, where cellulolytic microorganisms actively engage in the breakdown of lignocellulose. Exploring strains with high yields of cellulose-degrading enzymes holds substantial significance for the industrial production of related enzymes and the advancement of clean bioenergy. This study was inclined to screen cellulolytic bacteria, conduct genome analysis, mine cellulase-related genes, and optimize cellulase production. The potential carboxymethylcellulose-hydrolyzing bacterial strain Z2.6 was isolated from the maturation phase of pig manure-based compost with algae residuals as the feedstock and identified as Bacillus velezensis. In the draft genome of strain Z2.6, 31 related cellulolytic genes were annotated by the CAZy database, and further validation by cloning documented the existence of an endo-1,4-β-D-glucanase (EC 3.2.1.4) belonging to the GH5 family and a β-glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.21) belonging to the GH1 family, which are predominant types of cellulases. Through the exploration of ten factors in fermentation medium with Plackett–Burman and Box–Behnken design methodologies, maximum cellulase activity was predicted to reach 2.98 U/mL theoretically. The optimal conditions achieving this response were determined as 1.09% CMC-Na, 2.30% salinity, and 1.23% tryptone. Validation under these specified conditions yielded a cellulose activity of 3.02 U/mL, demonstrating a 3.43-fold degree of optimization. In conclusion, this comprehensive study underscored the significant capabilities of strain Z2.6 in lignocellulolytic saccharification and its potentialities for future in-depth exploration in biomass conversion.
... Having good rheological, optical, electrical, and magneto-mechanical capabilities in addition to excellent physical characteristics including high strength, high purity, and a high Young's modulus. 92 Tunicate nanofibrils generally range in length from 100 nm to a few micrometres (2 μm), and their diameters are between 10 and 30 nm. 93 In order to obtain nanoscale particles (CNC or CNF) from purified cellulosic biomass, acid hydrolysis, and mechanical treatments have been done separately or in a combination of the various methods to get the desired characteristics of the nanoparticles. 44 The dimensions of CNCs rely heavily on the origin of the cellulose material. ...
Cellulose is the most abundant renewable polymer on Earth which is extensively distributed in diverse ecosystems. It is present in higher plants, marine organisms, and also produced through microbial processes in organisms like algae, fungi, and bacteria. From an industrial perspective, the semicrystalline nature of cellulose present in different plant and microbial sources enables the fabrication of various types of nanocellulose, such as nanofibre and nanocrystals, through mechanical disintegration and chemical methods, respectively. Nanocellulose distinguishes itself as a sustainable, nonharmful, and biodegradable polymer. It will enable sustainable development for responsible consumption and production. Possessing a range of excellent properties, it can be seamlessly integrated into various materials. Research on nanocellulose is gaining momentum in response to current issues related to fossil fuels, including concerns about CO 2 emissions, plastic pollution, and the need for renewable energy sources. This review addresses nanocrystals production method from cellulose found in agricultural, microbial sources, and its applications in fields such as materials science, electronics, medicine, and environmental science.
