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Schematic illustration of p-type doping (a) and n-type doping (b) in organic semiconductors. In p-type doping, the molecular dopant acts as the electron acceptor, and the EA of dopant is equal to or higher than the IE of the organic matrix. In n-type doping, the molecular dopant acts as the electron donor, and the EA of the organic matrix is equal to or higher than the IE of dopant.
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Conducting polymers have attracted tremendous attention because of their unique characteristics, such as metal-like conductivity, ionic conductivity, optical transparency, and mechanical flexibility. Texture and nanostructural engineering of conjugated conducting polymers provide an outstanding pathway to facilitate their adoption in a variety of t...
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... schematic illustrations of p-type and n-type dopant in conjugated conducting/semiconducting polymers are depicted in Fig. 3a,b, respectively. It is noteworthy to mention that IE and EA are the two main parameters that identify the p-type and n-type doping. In the case of p-type doping, the EA of the acceptor dopant is equal to or higher than the IE of the organic polymer host; thus, an electron is transferred from the HOMO of organic polymer host to the LUMO ...
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... doping, the EA of the acceptor dopant is equal to or higher than the IE of the organic polymer host; thus, an electron is transferred from the HOMO of organic polymer host to the LUMO of acceptor dopant. In other words, in the case of ptype doping, the LUMO of dopant is located near or below the HOMO of organic polymer host, as illustrated in Fig. 3a. The most studied and applicable p-type conjugated polymers are PEDOT, PANI, PPy, PT, and their derivatives. In the same manner, as shown in Fig. 3b, in the case of n-type doping, the HOMO of dopant is located near or above the LUMO of organic polymer host [118,119]. For p-type conjugated polymers, such as PEDOT and P3HT, the doping ...
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... of organic polymer host to the LUMO of acceptor dopant. In other words, in the case of ptype doping, the LUMO of dopant is located near or below the HOMO of organic polymer host, as illustrated in Fig. 3a. The most studied and applicable p-type conjugated polymers are PEDOT, PANI, PPy, PT, and their derivatives. In the same manner, as shown in Fig. 3b, in the case of n-type doping, the HOMO of dopant is located near or above the LUMO of organic polymer host [118,119]. For p-type conjugated polymers, such as PEDOT and P3HT, the doping efficiency is enhanced by the increase in the difference of polymer-matrix IE and dopant EA (IE Polymer À EA dopant ), that is known as the oxidization ...
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... mobility n-type conjugated polymers are rare and unstable in ambient conditions and easily oxidized. Developing the ambient-stable ntype conjugated polymers with high mobility is challenging because of the following: (i) scarcity of strong and stable electrondeficient monomer or building block with appropriate high EA and high IE (as described in Fig. 1c and 3b) [121e123], (ii) difficulty in controlling the polymerization process (especially in solutionbased methods) of electron-deficient monomer (n-type), to obtain high MW, compared to electron-rich monomers (p-type) [122]. The most reported n-type conjugated polymers are naphthalene diimide, benzodifurandione-based oligo(p-phenylene ...
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... et al. [83] investigated the structure of PEDOT thin films in grazing incident geometry using synchrotron GIWAXS (Fig. 13a,b). They used iron(III)-trifluoromethanesulfonate (Fe(OTf) 3 ) as an oxidant agent for the polymerization of EDOT in the ICP method and used NNMP to reduce the polymerization rate. They used the H 2 SO 4 treatment in PEDOT for dopant exchange of triflate anions (OTf À ) with hydrogenosulfate (HSO 4 À ), which allows the increase of charge ...
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... conductivity of PEDOT:Sulf-NMP to its larger crystallite domain size compared to the PEDOT:PSS, PEDOT:OTf, and PEDOT:OTf-NMP [83,211]. The high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) image of PEDOT:OTf-NMP grown on a copper grid coated with graphene exhibits the presence of crystallites that are surrounded by amorphous regions (Fig. 13c). The extracted pep stacking distance from high magnification image (inset of Fig. 13c) is about 3.46 Å and is in agreement with the calculated pep stacking distance obtained from GIWAXS pattern. The length of a polymer chain that forms crystallite in PEDOT:OTf-NMP is the range of 6 nm, as shown in the HRTEM image, and is in the same ...
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... the PEDOT:PSS, PEDOT:OTf, and PEDOT:OTf-NMP [83,211]. The high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) image of PEDOT:OTf-NMP grown on a copper grid coated with graphene exhibits the presence of crystallites that are surrounded by amorphous regions (Fig. 13c). The extracted pep stacking distance from high magnification image (inset of Fig. 13c) is about 3.46 Å and is in agreement with the calculated pep stacking distance obtained from GIWAXS pattern. The length of a polymer chain that forms crystallite in PEDOT:OTf-NMP is the range of 6 nm, as shown in the HRTEM image, and is in the same order of magnitude as the crystallite size (~10 nm) along b-axis that is extracted from ...
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... large crystallite size, the increase of growth temperature in the oCVD method reduces the polymerization rate and yields the coarsening of PEDOT crystallites. The cross-sectional high-angle annular dark-field (HAADF) scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) image of grafted oCVD PEDOT films grown at the deposition temperature of 200 C (Fig. 13e) exhibits the larger crystallite size compared to its counterpart grown at 100 C (Fig. 13d) [77]. The crystallite size distribution of grafted oCVD PEDOT films grown at different deposition temperatures of 100 C and 200 C is shown in Fig. 13f ...
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... polymerization rate and yields the coarsening of PEDOT crystallites. The cross-sectional high-angle annular dark-field (HAADF) scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) image of grafted oCVD PEDOT films grown at the deposition temperature of 200 C (Fig. 13e) exhibits the larger crystallite size compared to its counterpart grown at 100 C (Fig. 13d) [77]. The crystallite size distribution of grafted oCVD PEDOT films grown at different deposition temperatures of 100 C and 200 C is shown in Fig. 13f ...
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... microscopy (STEM) image of grafted oCVD PEDOT films grown at the deposition temperature of 200 C (Fig. 13e) exhibits the larger crystallite size compared to its counterpart grown at 100 C (Fig. 13d) [77]. The crystallite size distribution of grafted oCVD PEDOT films grown at different deposition temperatures of 100 C and 200 C is shown in Fig. 13f ...
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... edge (transferring the Fermi level from extended state to localized state). They reported that the pep stacking distance was ~3.75 Å (b-axis lattice parameter~7.5 Å), and schematic illustration of obtaining highly packed polymer chains and enhancement in metal-like conduction behavior of PEDOT thin films by applying pressure is depicted in Fig. 16f [231]. The increase of applied pressure improves the overlap between the wave functions of individual polymer chains. As a consequence, the increased packing density induces a higher charge transfer integral (Eq. (43)) and thus increases electrical conductivity. [24]. (b) Electrical conductivity as a function of the b-axis lattice parameter ...
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... glassy carbon, and inorganic semiconductors) and redox-active species in an electrolyte [243]. The electron transfer from the electrode to cation species in electrolyte occurs when the energy levels of electrons in the electrode are higher than the LUMO energy level of cation (it can be considered as the n-type doping situation as illustrated in Fig. 3b). The heterogeneous electron transfer can be classified according to whether the reactants (redox-active species) has a tendency to chemisorb on the electrode (inner sphere) or cannot chemisorb on the electrode (outer sphere). The electronic coupling at the interface of electrode and reactants is strong in the case of inner sphere, ...
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Shear coating is a promising deposition method for upscaling device fabrication and enabling high throughput, and is furthermore suitable for translating to roll-to-roll processing. Although common polymer semiconductors (PSCs) are solution processible, they are still prone to mechanical failure upon stretching, limiting applications in e.g., elect...
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... Most of the charge transport in PEDOT:PSS films is largely influenced by the charge transport within the PEDOT chain, which is usually faster. 38 The conjugated structure of PEDOT serves two roles: (1) it can extend the ordered structure region of PEDOT due to the π−π interaction between loops, and (2) the conjugated structure makes the charge transfer between PEDOT chains easier. 39 Therefore, this structural arrangement explains why the conductivity of the PEDOT:PSS film increases sharply after doping with DPM or PPH. ...
The photoelectric characteristics of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) films significantly affect the power conversion efficiency and stability of Si/PEDOT:PSS hybrid solar cells. In this paper, we investigated PEDOT:PSS modification with alcohol ether solvents (dipropylene glycol methyl ether (DPM) and propylene glycol phenyl ether (PPH)). The reduction of PSS content and the transformation of the PEDOT chain from benzene to a quinone structure in PEDOT:PSS induced by doping with DPM or PPH are the reasons for the improved conductivity of PEDOT:PSS films. DPM and PPH doping improves the quality of silicon with the PEDOT:PSS heterojunction and silicon surface passivation, thereby reducing the surface recombination of charge carriers, which improves the photovoltaic performance of Si/PEDOT:PSS solar cells. Comparing the power conversion performance (PCE) and air stability of Si/PEDOT:PSS solar cells with DPM (13.24%), DPH (13.51%), ethylene glycol (EG, 13.07%), and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, 12.62%), it is suggested that doping with DPM and DPH can replace DMSO and EG to enhance the performance of Si/PEDOT:PSS solar cells. The EG and DMSO solvents not only have a certain toxicity to the human body but also are not environmentally friendly. In comparison to DMSO and EG, DPM and DPH are more economical and environmentally friendly, helping to reduce the manufacturing cost of Si/PEDOT:PSS solar cells and making them more conducive to their commercial applications.
... 20 The delocalization of π bond facilitates the charge carrier transport within these polymer chains. 21 Rissler et al. reported the dependence of optical excitation on the conjugation length of ordered and disordered π-conjugated systems. 22 Ling et al. reported the effect of conjugation length on the electrochromic properties of thiophene backbone-based polymers. ...
The local interaction within poly(vinylidene fluoride)/poly(3,4‐ethyelenedioxythiophene):poly(styrelenesulfonate) (PVDF/PEDOT:PSS) composite films has been explored in this study. Vibrational and impedance spectroscopy were used extensively to investigate the potential interactions within the moieties of PVDF and PEDOT:PSS in the composite. The increased concentration of PEDOT:PSS used as additives enhanced the dielectric constant of the composite films significantly. Both the AC conductivity and the estimated mobility also increased in the composite films with increasing additives. X‐ray absorption spectroscopy gave an insight into the local chain interactions within the polymer composite films. A shift in the C K‐edge toward higher energy confirmed the local interaction of the polymer moieties, suggesting a change in the polymer chain structure due to the possible association of moieties.
... 5 Meanwhile, the properties of PPy films could be regulated by polymerization conditions such as monomer concentration, applied voltage, and dopant structure. 6 It has been demonstrated that anionic dopant plays a pivotal role in achieving high conductivity and thermal stability of PPy. 7 The choice of dopant varies from mineral acids to organic compounds, including p-toluenesulfonic acid, 8 dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid, 9 and naphthalene sulfonic acid. 7,10 It was found that by altering the dopant anions, the electric conductivity of PPy materials undergoes a substantial enhancement by 3 orders of magnitude. ...
Electrochemical additive manufacturing (ECAM), based on meniscus-guided deposition, is an emerging technique for the fabrication of conducting polymers. The ECAM fabrication of polypyrrole entails the electrochemical polymerization of pyrrole monomers and additive manufacturing of polymers. Herein, we investigate the 2-naphthalene sulfonic acid sodium salt (NSA-a), sodium naphthalene-2,6-disulfonate (NSA-b), and 4,5-dihydroxy-1,3-benzenedisulfonic acid disodium salt (Tiron) as anionic dopants for the ECAM processing of polypyrrole. The analysis of the dopants, encompassing the electrochemical tests and electron microscopy measurements coupled with energy-level calculations, provides an insight into the influence of their structure and functional groups on polypyrrole depositions. The increase in the charge/mass ratio of the dopant results in lower deposition potential, higher deposition rate, and reduced particle agglomeration. Atomic force microscopy tests reveal that the employment of Tiron demonstrates improved deformation tolerance with stronger adhesion due to the chelating properties. The high electronic conductivity of Tiron-doped polypyrrole is attributed to multiple −SO 3 − groups, which enhance the interchain mobility of charge carriers. Tiron-doped polypyrrole micropillars are successfully produced via pulling of the meniscus. The findings present an opportunity for the optimization and engineering of ECAM fabrications.
... The researchers have reported the combined effect of organic and inorganic material in a composite for different applications [3,4]. Coupling of conducting polymer (CPs) as organic material with metal oxide (MOs) as inorganic material to form hetero-junction has been implied as a productive way to enhance efficiency as compared to an individual one [5,6]. The composites of CPs and MOs are well-known potential materials in the biomedical and industrial fields due to their chemical stability, easy and cost-effective process [7]. ...
A simple chemical oxidative polymerization approach has been adopted for the preparation of polypyrrole (PPy) and TiO2/PPy composite, where iron chloride was used as an oxidizing agent. The structural confirmation of synthesized samples, the presence of residual iron oxide in the PPy (Fe2O3-PPy) and TiO2/PPy (TiO2/Fe2O3-PPy) composites, has been addressed by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The particle size distribution has been measured by dynamic light scattering (DLS). The result successfully shows the formation of hetero-junction materials that can be utilized for various applications such as sensors, photovoltaic, organic LEDs, flexible devices and photo catalysts.
... Fig. 15 shows the schematic illustration of 3-D movement direction of charges (polaron/bipolaron). Furthermore, there is enhanced interaction of PPy with MB as surface polaron/bipolaron concentration increases [57]. MB-PPy Raman spectra (Fig. 6) show few peaks of MB, implying MB molecules degraded after being adsorbed/absorbed by PPy particles. ...
The present research investigates the photocatalytic activity of pyrrole and polypyrrole (PPy) under visible light for the treatment of contaminated water with the organic dye methylene blue (MB). Pyrrole is inert for photocatalytic activities, because of its large HOMO-LUMO gap. However, when PPy was synthesized, the electronic structure changes, making PPy an active photocatalyst. PPy can be utilized to produce photo-excited charges on any type of light source (UV or visible) since it has broad absorbance spectra. The UV-Vis spectroscopy shows
absorbance bands in the UV and visible region, which correspond to absorption maxima at 380 nm, 470 nm and
525 nm. Additionally, a broad tail near the IR region was observed which corresponds to polaronic and bipolaronic transitions. These charges actively contribute to the breakdown of dye during the degradation phenomenon. The presence of polaron was confrmed by electron spin resonance (ESR) having g value of 1.99, and its intensity decreases on light exposure. The interaction between
PPy and MB through polaron-bipolaron was
explained by Raman spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). N 1s and C 1s XPS results show the shift in the B.E. of –N–H+⋅, =N–H+, –C– –N+ and =C–N+⋅when PPy interacts with MB which gives the signature of charge transfer. Furthermore, the interactions within the system were analyzed by ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) data which provided descriptive information on the molecular orbital level and also gave an indication of charge transfer state formation between PPy and MB at − 7.83 eV.
... In comparison, Ag@P-CA includes 86.1% PANI and less than 10% non-PANI content, which is attributed to the remaining CA. This variation in the portion of non-PANI material was attributed to higher electrical conductivity for the Ag@P-CA than Ag@PANI, due to the effect of oligomers on reducing the electronic conductivity of PANI [47]. ...
... The UV-Vis spectra of PANI have many vibrational bands, where support is provided herein for the characterization of PANI by assigning vibrational bands to the benzenoid and quinoid units of the polymer. Then, the presence of polarons and bipolarons, which are responsible for the electron conductivity of PANI [47], can be further investigated. ...
... In general, a higher rate of electron transfer results in a higher electrode reaction rate. Higher electrical conductivity can be obtained in conjugated polymers (such as PANI) under the conditions listed here: (i) low π-π stacking distances (higher interchain charge transfer is integral to avoid charge localization), (ii) planar backbone structure, and (iii) highly homogeneous crystalline orientation (no orientation anisotropy and better percolation pathway) and the presence of bridging polymers [47]. Two outcomes from the results provide support that the electronic conductivity of PANI increased after modification with CA: (i) XPS results showed that P-CA had a bandgap that was more than 11 times lower than the bandgap of PANI (Table 4), and (ii) ΔEp was lower for Ag@P-CA, compared to Ag@PANI (Figure 8). ...
Citric-acid-modified polyaniline (P-CA) and P-CA modified with Ag nanoparticles (Ag@P-CA) were prepared via an in situ reduction method. The physicochemical properties of P-CA and Ag@P-CA were compared to unmodified polyaniline (PANI) and PANI-modified Ag nanoparticles (Ag@PANI). Ag@P-CA had a lower content of aniline oligomers compared to Ag@PANI. P-CA and Ag@P-CA had a greater monolayer adsorption capacity for 2-nitrophenol and lower binding affinity as compared to PANI and Ag@PANI materials. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry characterization provided reason and evidence for the higher conductivity of citric-acid-modified materials (P-CA and Ag@P-CA versus PANI and Ag@PANI). These results showed the potential utility for the optimization of adsorption/desorption and electron transfer steps during the electrochemical oxidation of nitrophenols. The oxidation process employs Ag@P-CA as the electrocatalyst by modifying polyaniline with Ag nanoparticles and citric acid, which was successfully employed to oxidize 2-nitrophenol and 4-nitrophenol with comparable selectivity and sensitivity to their relative concentrations. This work is envisaged to contribute significantly to the selective conversion of nitrophenols and electrocatalytic remediation of such waterborne contaminants.
... 72,73 Poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT) is a model material which has been extensively studied in organic electronics but that is also employed to study fundamental processes such as structure-dopant interactions for thermoelectrics. [74][75][76][77][78][79] Double doping of P3HT with AuCl 3 À and Au nanoparticles in ambient air was presented by Kang et al. leading to the electrical conductivity of 207 S cm À1 and PF of 110 mW m À1 K À2 . 80 Beyond P3HT, Gregory et al. studied the thermoelectric properties of poly(3-alkylchalcogenophene) thin films together with heteroatoms and doping processes. ...
Organic thermoelectricity is a blooming field of research that employs organic (semi)conductors to recycle waste heat through its partial conversion to electrical power. Such a conversion occurs by means of organic thermoelectric generator (OTEG) devices. The recent process on the synthesis of novel materials and on the understanding of doping mechanisms to increase conductivity has tremendously narrowed the gap between laboratory research and their application in actual applications. This Feature Article intends to highlight the impressive progress in materials and fabrication techniques for OTEGs made in recent years.
... Multiple functional materials with a combination of properties are a priority [1]. Conducting polymers has received a lot of attention in the last three decades as smart materials due to their commercial significance, excellent stability in different environmental conditions, electrical conductivity, and excellent mechanical, optical, and electronic properties [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. A variety of conducting polymers, including polyaniline (PANI), polyacetylene (PA), poly(p-phenylenevinylene) (PPV), polypyrrole (PPy), poly-furan (PF), poly (3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) (PEDOT), and another polythiophene (PTh) derivative, have attracted particular attention in nanotechnology due to some of their distinct and exceptional properties. ...
... A variety of conducting polymers, including polyaniline (PANI), polyacetylene (PA), poly(p-phenylenevinylene) (PPV), polypyrrole (PPy), poly-furan (PF), poly (3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) (PEDOT), and another polythiophene (PTh) derivative, have attracted particular attention in nanotechnology due to some of their distinct and exceptional properties. These characteristics include electrical characteristics, a conducting mechanism, a doping/ undoping procedure that is reversible, tunable chemical and electrochemical characteristics, and ease of processability [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. Among the several available polymers, Polypyrrole (PPy) has been the subject of many studies due to its unique properties such as versatility of synthesis, relatively high electrical conductivity, and outstanding mechanical strength [12]. ...
In this paper, we report, the synthesis of conducting polymer nanocomposites of nickel oxide polypyrrole (NiO-PPy) doped with dodecyl benzene sulphonic acid for its application as a photocatalyst. In-situ polymerization of the pyrrole technique was employed along with oxidant ammonium persulphate and dodecyl benzene sulphonic acid as a dopant. The nanostructures were synthesized at different concentrations of NiO nanoparticles viz. 0.05 wt.%, 0.1 wt.%, 0.2 wt.% and 0.3 wt.%. The development of nanostructures was explored by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrophotometer, Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope, X-ray diffraction spectrometer, and electrical conductivity measurements. FTIR studies revealed a shift in the absorption band when pure PPy and NiO-PPy nanocomposites were studied, exhibiting the substantial interaction between the PPy network and the NiO. FE-SEM analysis demonstrated the consistent distribution of NiO with globular-shaped metal oxide materials in the PPy host template. The XRD studies for pure PPy revealed its amorphous nature while nanocomposites indicated the prominent NiO peaks arising from (111), (200), and (220) planes. The nanocomposites' direct electrical conductivity at room temperature was much higher than pure PPy. It was observed that the electrical conductivity for pure PPy was 0.409×10-5 S/cm while it substantially increased to 4.2×10-5 (S/cm) for 0.3% nanocomposite. The electrical studies revealed that the electrical conductivity goes on growing with increased NiO concentration and subsequently after a saturation point, more PPy encapsulates the NiO and in turn, reduces the electrical conductivity. With 0.5 g/L of 0.3% nanocomposite, the photocatalytic degradation of the Methylene-Blue dye was 84.98%.
... Likewise, the interchain charge transport through π-π stacking interactions is limited, as the side groups lead to a larger π-π stacking distance. All of this leads to a limited charge mobility and the formation of polymers with lower conductivity [46][47][48]. Therefore, the 0.8 mA variation is not a good alternative because it may increase the series resistance (Rs) of the solar cells. ...
... This agrees with the Raman results because conjugation is broken in the polymer chains due to structural defects, and the chains act as a series of conjugated segments. Due to the difference in the conjugation length, each segment has a different HOMO level [48,57]. Increases in the HOMO level of about 50 meV have been reported when PEDOT chains are shortened by overoxidation [58]. ...
... It is clear that polymers synthesized at lower potentials induced a stronger PL quenching in perovskite. This can be related to the high charge mobility in planar polymeric chains without structural defects and with a high charge carrier density (Fig. 3) [42,48,49]. An HTM is more effective in extracting holes if it has a high conductivity because the transferred holes can quickly leave the PEDOT/perovskite interface [64]. ...
Organometallic halide perovskites have emerged in the last decade as promising light absorbers for solar cell development. These devices require functional layers for both generated hole and electron extraction and transport. Among the hole transporting materials (HTM), poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) poly-(styrenesulfonate) or PEDOT:PSS layers have been widely obtained from a colloidal suspension. As an alternative, PEDOT:PSS can also be electrochemically deposited, allowing for synthesis control and performance design. In this study, the effect of the electrodeposition method of PEDOT on its HTM properties and solar cell efficiency was evaluated. The result showed a decrease in the HTM charge carrier density with the increase in the polymerization potential. When this potential is around 1.5 V (vs Ag/AgCl), the Raman spectra suggest the formation of side groups in the polymer chains resulting from over-oxidation. HTMs with a high charge carrier density increased the short-circuit current density (Jsc) and fill factor (FF) but reduced the open-circuit potential (Voc) of the solar cells. To avoid overoxidation, low synthesis potentials were applied. With this strategy, a 15.0% power conversion efficiency (PCE) was achieved using the galvanostatic method at 0.1 mA cm⁻², where the applied potential was ∼1 V. Consequently, this work paves the way for the optimization of the solar cell by simply controlling the electrodeposition potential of the PEDOT as HTM.
... The electronic properties of the materials are largely dependent on their dimensions and change dramatically as the density of states and the spatial length scale of the electronic motion are reduced with decreasing size. Therefore, size-induced changes in the electronic structure affect the optical properties of nanoparticles [43]. ...
... Researchers have reported on bottom-up approaches for inorganic semiconductors to produce zinc oxide (ZnO) nanowires. In addition, the dimensionality of these nanomaterials range from 1D and 2D with flexibility in portable electronics, as they possess outstanding optical, electrical, and mechanical properties [43]. ...
The demand for energy has been a global concern over the years due to the ever increasing population which still generate electricity from non-renewable energy sources. Presently, energy produced worldwide is mostly from fossil fuels, which are non-renewable sources and release harmful by-products that are greenhouses gases. The sun is considered a source of clean, renewable energy, and the most abundant. With silicon being the element most used for the direct conversion of solar energy into electrical energy, solar cells are the technology corresponding to the solution of the problem of energy on our planet. Solar cell fabrication has undergone extensive study over the past several decades and improvement from one generation to another. The first solar cells were studied and grown on silicon wafers, in particular single crystals that formed silicon-based solar cells. With the further development in thin films, dye-sensitized solar cells and organic solar cells have significantly enhanced the efficiency of the cell. The manufacturing cost and efficiency hindered further development of the cell, although consumers still have confidence in the crystalline silicon material, which enjoys a fair share in the market for photovoltaics. This present review work provides niche and prominent features including the benefits and prospects of the first (mono-poly-crystalline silicon), second (amorphous silicon and thin films), and third generation (quantum dots, dye synthesized, polymer, and perovskite) of materials evolution in photovoltaics.
