Fig 15 - uploaded by Masahiro Koizumi
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Schematic diagram representing the phylogenetic origin of the mammalian subscapularis (sbs) and teres major (tma) muscles. (C) is the transitive stage from reptiles to mammals. Each muscular rectangle is settled according to the spinal segments and layers of the nerves innervating the muscles. The horizontal arrows are representing the layer and the vertical arrows representing the spinal segments. The rectangles indicated by asterisk (*) and star (★) are the muscular portions that may contribute to the formation of mammalian subscapularis and teres major muscles, respectively. del deltoideus muscle; ld latissimus dorsi muscle; shp scapulohumeralis posterior muscle
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It has been reported that the ramification pattern of spinal motor nerves reflected the spatial orientation of motoneuron pools in the ventral horn of spinal cord and this topography of spinal motor nuclei was very similar in different vertebrates. Therefore, the ramification pattern of spinal nerves was an important criterion for discussing the ph...
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... Howell (1936) mentioned that topography was, of course, often of considerable value in the identification of some individual units, but it was often extremely misleading and Nishi (1961) described that the innervation is the most reliable criterion on which to base a discussion on the homology of muscles. Based on these ideas, many previous studies have clarified the morphological significance of muscles based on innervations (Kato and Sato 1984;Koizumi and Sakai 1995;Koizumi et al. 2002;Koizumi 2022;Murakami 1988;Yamada 1986). In the experimental neurology, Hörner and Kümmel (1993) mentioned that the spinal anatomy rather reflected the fixed phylogenetic origin of muscle groups than their variable positions or functions realized during evolution in different species and indicated the specificity between nerves and muscles. ...
... The assessment of the spinal segments that contribute the brachial plexuses from previous studies is summarized in Table 2. Most reports described that the lower three cervical and the first thoracic nerves formed the brachial plexus, just like the major cases in this study. Although the spinal segments of the brachial plexus in domestic fowl were fewer than those in mammals, including humans (Koizumi 2022;Williams1995), and some minor differences of the branching pattern existed among specimens, the same fundamental arrangement as that of mammals was commonly observed, i.e., that each root of the brachial plexus bifurcates into the ventral and dorsal divisions was commonly observed as in mammals. Kaupp (1918) classified the pectoralis muscle into the pectoralis major, secundus and tertius muscles. ...
... In this study the branch to the subcoracoscapularis muscle in domestic fowl was observed to arise from the proximal and ventral position of the dorsal cord of the brachial plexus (Fig. 5). In the previous study, I conducted a minute examination of the nerve supply to the subscapularis or its equivalent muscle in salamanders, reptiles and mammals and clarified the subcoracoscapularis in reptiles was innervated by the branch arising from the proximal and ventral position of the dorsal cord of the brachial plexus (Koizumi 2022). This fact indicated that the subcoracoscapularis in domestic fowl was homologous with the subcoracoscapularis in reptiles. ...
Many studies have described the muscle anatomy of the domestic fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus), a commonly used animal in developmental experiments. However, some major differences in terminology existed among studies, making it difficult to precisely discuss the muscle homologies between domestic fowl and other animals. In this study, the innervations of shoulder girdle muscles in five sides of the domestic fowl were elucidated and the homology of the shoulder girdle muscles between domestic fowl and other tetrapods was discussed using terminology that conforms to Nomina Anatomica Avium (1993). Unlike previous descriptions, the supracoracoideus, being developed in domestic fowl, is thought to have a different muscular origin from the deltoid muscle. The coracobrachialis cranialis, coracobrachialis caudalis and coracobrachialis muscles, previously described as the coracobrachialis muscle group, had different innervations; the coracobrachialis cranialis should be grouped with the deltoid muscles, and the coracobrachialis caudalis appears to belong to the pectoral muscle group. I propose that the subcoracoscapularis in domestic fowl, keeping the reptilian form, is divided into the subcoracoideus and subscapularis muscles. Based on the innervation, the subscapularis in domestic fowl is homologous with the subscapularis in reptiles and a major part of the subscapularis in mammals. Unlike the descriptions in previous studies, the scapulohumeralis cranialis and caudalis in the domestic fowl in this study, being innervated by the common branch, were found to have a close relationship with the subcoracoscapularis muscle. Based on the observations in this study, a new classification of the shoulder girdle muscles in domestic fowl is proposed.
... The study of the attachments and topology of muscles should be complemented with their innervation to review the evolutionary derivation of the muscles in vertebrates (Diogo & Abdala, 2010). Therefore, thoracic limb muscles have been studied together with their innervation in several species of mammals to review the evolutionary derivation by comparative anatomy, such as studies performed in monotremes (Diogo & Abdala, 2010;Gambaryan et al., 2015), didelphids (Diogo et al., 2016), pholidotas (Kawashima et al., 2015), xenarthrans , dermopterans, rodents (Diogo & Abdala, 2010;Kawashima et al., 2017), primates (Diogo & Wood, 2012) and carnivorans Koizumi, 2022;Perdomo-Cárdenas et al., 2021;. Among this last group, a recent study could infer the evolutionary derivation of the extrinsic thoracic limb muscles in procyonids ). ...
... The m. latissimus dorsi evolved to increase the retraction strength of the thoracic limb and is the muscle more constant in vertebrates from the amphibians (Diogo & Abdala, 2010;Koizumi, 2022). Even in some cases, the thoracodorsal nerve forms a branch to the m. ...
... Even in some cases, the thoracodorsal nerve forms a branch to the m. teres major , which has allowed us to infer that both muscles could have a common evolutionary origin in F. catus (Koizumi, 2022). ...
Extrinsic thoracic limb muscles are a muscular group that supports the thoracic limb in mammals without the clavicle and serve to move the scapula and shoulder joint. However, there are few evolutionary studies of these muscles in Felis catus, which should take into account the topology and innervation of the muscles to hypothesize the muscle derivation from a common ancestor. The main objective of this study was to check the extrinsic thoracic limb muscles in ten cadavers. Intra- and interspecific anatomical variants were found with that formerly described and other felids. Based on the topology and innervation found in this study, the evolutionary derivation was hypothesized. Therefore, the omotransversarius and rhomboideus muscles are derived from the serratus ventralis cervicis muscle. The cleidobrachialis muscle is derived mainly from the m. deltoideus and accessorily from the supracoracoid muscular group. The pectoantebrachialis and pectoralis abdominalis muscles are derived from the pectoralis descendens and cutaneus trunci muscles, respectively. In conclusion, most extrinsic thoracic limb muscles of F. catus may have evolutionary derivations from the last common ancestor of mammals, while some of them are from the last common ancestor of carnivorans or within the family Felidae.
... brachialis could embryologically have derived not only from the myotomes that migrate with the musculocutaneous nerve but also from the radial nerve. This could be a primitive phylogenetic arrangement within a last common ancestor of reptiles and mammals since, in some reptiles, a part of the radial nerve goes within a common trunk with the musculocutaneous nerve [68,69]. The branches to the craniolateral antebrachial muscles in carnivorans seem consistent [68,[70][71][72], although the course of the deep branch of the radial nerve with respect to the m. ...
Procyon cancrivorus and Nasua nasua are two procyonids with different evolutionary adaptations to use their thoracic limbs. Therefore, this study aimed to characterize the differences in the brachial plexus between both species. Five P. cancrivorus and five N. nasua cadavers were used to perform this investigation with the permission of the bioethics committee and environmental license. Gross dissections were performed on the cervical, pectoral, and thoracic limb regions to find the origin and distribution of the brachial plexus. The brachial plexus of both species originated in a variant manner from C5-T1, C5-T2, C6-T1, or C6-T2. All brachial plexus nerves were observed and, interestingly, the musculocutaneous sent a communicating branch to the median nerve medially to the axillary artery, forming an ansa axillaris in both species. An ansa pectoralis was also observed medially to the axillary artery. Additionally, in P. cancrivorus, the musculocutaneous nerve innervates the pronator teres and flexor carpi radialis muscles and communicates with the median nerve at the elbow level to continue as a common trunk at the antebrachium. The brachial plexus has differences between both procyonids, although in both species, it could conserve a primitive arrangement present within the infraorder Arctoidea.
... The innervation has been previously studied in extrinsic and intrinsic thoracic limb muscles to hypothesize their evolutionary derivation in vertebrates Perdomo-Cárdenas et al. 2021;Vélez-García et al. 2021a, b;Koizumi 2022). Based on this, the trapezius and sternocleidomastoideus muscles in reptiles and mammals are evolutionarily derived from the protractor pectoralis muscle of bony fish and amphibians since both muscles are primarily innervated by the accessory nerve (XI) . ...
... teres major of mammals derived from the m. latissimus dorsi, since the nerve branches to both muscles had a close relationship in several vertebrates (Koizumi 2022). In a xenarthran as Tamandua mexicana, none of the flexor digitorum profundus heads were derived from the m. ...
The procyonids (Procyon cancrivorus, Nasua nasua and Potos flavus) are Neotropical carnivorans with the ability to climb trees; however, each one has different locomotor preferences. Thereby, P. flavus is highly arboreal, P. cancrivorus is mainly terrestrial with abilities to swim, and N. nasua is also fossorial. These activities not only require movements of the hands but stabilize the thoracic limb, an action performed by the extrinsic muscles. Besides, former descriptions performed in procyonid species have obsolete terms for these muscles, generating confusion about the comparison among species. Thereby, muscle innervation has also been used to support the evolutionary derivation of the muscles. Therefore, this study aimed to describe the attachments and innervations of these muscles in three procyonids. There were intra- and interspecific anatomical variations in the attachments of all extrinsic thoracic limb muscles. However, based on the innervation, several evolutionary derivations in procyonids could be found, such as: the cleidobrachialis muscle derived from the deltoideus muscle; the atlantoscapularis muscle of P. flavus derived from the serratus ventralis cervicis muscle; the pectoralis transversus muscle derived from the pectoralis profundus and superficiales muscles; and the pectoralis abdominalis muscle derived from the cutaneus trunci muscle. Some functions could be associated with locomotor habits, among them a highly developed pectoralis abdominalis in Nasua for its fossorial habits and the atlantoscapularis in Potos for its arboreal and prehensile habits. Thus, the extrinsic muscles in procyonids have evolved for locomotor preferences, but mainly due to their phylogenetic relationship within the family Procyonidae.
... and C7, similar to other carnivores such as C. l. familiaris (Allam et al., 1952;Evans & De Lahunta, 2013;Ghoshal, 1982), C. thous (Pinheiro et al., 2014;Souza-Junior et al., 2014), L. gymnocercus (Souza-Junior et al., 2017), V. vulpes (Haligur & Ozkadif, 2021), (Demiraslan et al., 2015), A. australis (Souza et al., 2010), F. catus (Ghoshal, 1982;Hakki-Nur et al., 2020;König, 1992;Sebastiani & Fishbeck, 2005), L. pardalis (Chagas et al., 2014) and L. geoffroyi (Souza junior et al., 2018). On the other hand, the unique contribution from C6 also can occur in A. microtis (Pinheiro et al., 2013), N. vison (Backus et al., 2016) and P. concolor (Barreto-Mejía et al., 2021); or from C7 in C. thous (Souza-Junior et al., 2014), L. gymnocercus (Souza-Junior et al., 2017), C. l. familiaris (Evans & De Lahunta, 2013), F. catus (Koizumi, 2021) and P. concolor (Barreto-Mejía et al., 2021). These nerves only innervate the subscapular muscle in A. microtis (Souza-Junior et al., 2014), L. gymnocercus (Souza-Junior et al., 2017), C. thous (Pinheiro et al., 2014;, C. l. familiaris (Barone & Simoens, 2010;Budras et al., 2007;Evans & De Lahunta, 2013) and F. catus (Hakki-Nur et al., 2020;Roos & Vollmerhaus, 2005), which also occurred in P. flavus. ...
... Therefore, an independent branch from the brachial plexus to the teres major muscle can be present in F. catus, similarly to P. flavus. P. concolor also may have an independent branch from the brachial plexus, but this branch innervates the subscapularis and teres major muscles (Barreto-Mejía et al., 2021), which also may occur in F. catus (Koizumi, 2021). And on the other side, the teres major muscle may not be innervated by the axillary nerve in P. concolor (Barreto-Mejía et al., 2021), such as occurred in P. flavus. ...
... The communicating branch mainly between the musculocutaneous and median nerves around the axillary artery is normally found in ungulates with loop shape (Ansa axillaris) (Budras et al., 2011;Budras et al., 2012;Backus et al., 2016;ICVGAN, 2017;, but according to Backus et al. (2016) and the ICVGAN (2017), the ansa axillaris is absent in carnivorans. However, an 'axillary loop' had been reported by Arlamowska-Palider (1970) (Koizumi, 2021;König, 1992), the ansa axillaris named by those authors (Ansón et al., 2013;Arlamowska-Palider, 1970;Mencalha et al., 2014) is actually a contributing branch from C7 to the median nerve that passes medially to the axillary artery. Even some recent studies did not name an ansa axillaris in felids (Barreto-Maejía et al., 2021;Chagas et al., 2014;Hakki-Nur et al., 2020; and one mustelid (Demiraslan et al., 2015). ...
The kinkajou (Potos flavus) is a carnivoran adapted for arboreal quadrupedal locomotion along with a prehensile tail. The thoracic limb bones and muscles of this species have been studied, but the knowledge about its nerves is still scarce. This knowledge is necessary to perform several veterinary procedures, and to review the differences among carnivoran species. Thus, the objective of this study was to describe the origin and distribution of the brachial plexus in Potos flavus. Thereby, both brachial plexuses of five specimens were dissected (10). Seven plexuses originated from C6-T2 (70%), whilst three plexuses originated from C5-T2 (30%). Additionally, C6 and C7 formed two cranial trunks, and C8, T1 and T2 formed two caudal trunks. All nerves from the brachial plexus that have been reported in carnivorans were successfully located. In addition, we found one nerve reaching the teres major muscle originating directly from the brachial plexus and not from the axillary nerve as reported in other carnivorans. The brachiocephalic nerve was found partially innervating the cleidobrachialis muscle (50%), but this muscle always was innervated by the axillary nerve. Moreover, one to three subscapular nerves were found, and the musculocutaneous nerve formed two communicating branches (proximal and distal) to the median nerve. However, the distal communicating branch of the musculocutaneous nerve was absent in two specimens (40%). In conclusion, the brachial plexus of P. flavus was differentiated mainly with other carnivorans by a higher contribution from T2, formations of trunks, and one independent nerve to the teres major muscle.
"The striated muscles that appeared later on the phylogenetic scale have more white, fast fibers in their composition, more sensitive to metabolic aggression. Based on the composition, phylogeny and anatomical-functional characteristics, we selected the following muscles: semitendinosus, iliac, subscapular, extensor pollicis brevis and flexor pollicis longus. The data from the specialized literature show that the respective muscles are exposed to sports injuries. In principle, one can try to prevent injuries by changing the proportions in types of muscle fibers, possibly through physical exercises, but there is the potential danger of changing joint biomechanics. Keywords: striated muscles, phylogeny, fiber types, sports traumatology."
