Figure 1 - uploaded by C.D. Balaban
Content may be subject to copyright.
Schematic diagram of tonic–phasic mathematical modeling. The top half of the figure shows the structure and transfer functions of the mathematical model used to decompose responses to alcohol into tonic and phasic processes. The bottom half of the figure shows the responses of the model components to a hypothetical instantaneous change from zero to a positive and constant blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of .05 g%. a tonic gain parameter; b phasic gain parameter; s Laplace variable.
Source publication
This article presents a novel method for measuring the acute effects of alcohol. One hundred twenty nonproblem drinkers aged 21-28 participated in 3 alcohol administration sessions that produced peak blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) near .09 g%. Subjective intoxication ratings were taken at multiple points across rising and falling BACs. Mathema...
Similar publications
Although self-report data are generally evaluated as reliable, validity estimates for self-reported drinking behavior are not as favorable. A new method of measurement addressing problems currently associated with the questionable validity of self-report drinking information is introduced. Study 1 tests the correspondence between the new measure (o...
The influence of drinking conditions on alcohol metabolism and drunkenness was investigated in healthy men with ALDH2*1/*1 genotype aged from 40 to 60 who were occasional or habitual drinkers. The investigation was performed by open intersection competitive drinking tests at an ethanol dose of 0.32 g/kg under 4 different drinking conditions: beer w...
Using self-report survey data and measures of breath alcohol concentration (BrAC), this study examined the validity of an estimate of blood alcohol concentration (eBAC). Differences between eBAC and BrAC were modeled to identify sources of error related to survey-derived eBAC. Further, using hierarchical multilevel analyses, environmental event cha...
We tested whether a brief motivational interview (MI) would reduce alcohol-related consequences and use among adolescents treated in an emergency department (ED) after an alcohol-related event. Patients aged 13 to 17 years (N = 152) with a positive blood alcohol concentration (BAC) by lab test or self-report were recruited in the ED and randomly as...
Alcohol is a commonly used social drug and driving under influence is a well-established risk factor for traffic accidents1. To improve road safety, legal limits are set for blood alcohol concentration (BAC) and driving, usually at 0.05% (most European countries) or 0.08% (most US states, Canada and UK). In contrast, for walking there are no legal...
Citations
... Problems arise not only from how much but also how quickly individuals consume alcohol. Drinking at faster rates accelerates the rise in blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels (Leeman et al. 2010;Li et al. 2007), produces greater subjective intoxication and stimulation in adults (Carpenter et al. 2017;Conrod et al. 1997;Conrod et al. 2001;Martin et al. 2006;Martin and Earleywine 1990), and yields more pronounced behavioral impairments independent of drinking quantity (Bernosky-Smith et al. 2012;Connors and Maisto 1979;Fillmore and Vogel-Sprott 1998;Goodwin et al. 1969;Jones and Vega 1972;Moskowitz and Burns 1976;Perry et al. 2006;Ryback 1970). Thus, there is compelling evidence that rate of consumption is an important indicator of alcohol use. ...
Rationale: Alcohol consumption in adolescents and emerging adults is a prevalent and significant issue. However, our understanding of the topography of alcohol use within drinking episodes in this population is at a nascent stage.
Objectives: This study characterized rate of alcohol consumption in the daily lives of problem drinkers ages 16-24 years (N = 75). Rate of consumption is a potentially meaningful metric of consumption, and youth may be especially prone to drinking fast. We examined whether AUD symptoms and the presence of peers, factors relevant to alcohol consumption in youth, were associated with rate of consumption.
Methods: Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) was used to examine rate of consumption (Nobservations = 799), defined as change in estimated blood alcohol concentration (eBAC) relative to the start of the drinking episode. Piecewise multi-level modeling was used to test hypotheses.
Results: For all participants, eBAC increased sharply early in the episode, then plateaued. Participants with more AUD symptoms or who were in the presence of peers had significantly steeper increases in eBAC over the early part of the episode. Participants with more AUD symptoms were also more likely to engage in binge-like behavior.
Comparison analyses for quantity and frequency indicators were not significant, except for an association of person-level peak eBAC and AUD symptoms. Thus, associations were largely specific to consumption rate.
Conclusions: Findings highlight the value of rate of consumption as an indicator of use in youth, one sensitive to the influence of relevant person-level and situational factors. Intervention efforts may benefit from targeting the speed at which youth drink.
... When BAC is increasing, faster consumption generally results in a faster rate of BAC change. Martin, Balaban, and McBurney (2006) reported that subjective intoxication is more strongly determined by the rate of BAC change than the actual magnitude of BAC. In this review, acute tolerance was more reliably found in studies that used shorter consumption times. ...
Although the strength of the effect produced by alcohol is generally dose dependent, its effect on behavior cannot be reliably predicted by the dose alone because the dose effect has been shown to vary. Acute behavioral tolerance is a rapid decrease in the dose effect of alcohol, seen to occur within the duration of a single dose. Numerous research paradigms have been used to examine acute behavioral tolerance, across an array of different behavioral measures. We have reviewed studies that used a research paradigm appropriate to test for acute behavioral tolerance. The primary aim was to examine the different paradigms that have been used to identify what empirical evidence of the effect has been found. The additional aims were to identify domains of behavior in which acute tolerance has been shown to occur and ascertain which conditions have been shown to influence it. Findings of acute tolerance were prevalent. Seven different research paradigms were identified, and each found evidence of acute behavioral tolerance in at least 1 study. The effect was not uniform across all behavioral measures. Subjective measures reliably showed the effect, but objective measures of behavior were less reliable, providing evidence that particular aspects of task performance are more sensitive to acute tolerance than others. The dose effect of alcohol for behavioral measures is often shown to decrease within the duration of a single dose. Investigations into, and considerations of, the effects of alcohol on behavior need to consider temporal changes in the dose effect. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
... Elevated rate of consumption is also related to greater subjective intoxication (Martin et al. 2006;Martin and Earleywine 1990) and, in men with family histories of alcoholism, greater stimulant response, as measured by heart rate change (Conrod et al. 1997;Conrod et al. 2001). These studies agree with experimental findings that rising BAC is positively associated with subjective stimulation (Hendler et al. 2013;Martin et al. 1993). ...
... Second, we predicted that BPD individuals would consume alcohol at elevated rates in order to maximize the rewarding pharmacological effects of alcohol. Therefore, we additionally expected that rate of consumption would be associated with subjective stimulant, but not (hedonically negative) sedative, response to alcohol, consistent with past research (Conrod et al. 1997;Conrod et al. 2001;Martin et al. 2006;Martin and Earleywine 1990). We did not expect this relationship to differ by group, as we expected this to be a pharmacological effect that is relatively consistent across individuals. ...
... In turn, change in eBAC was positively related to momentary subjective stimulation, but not sedation, independent of the effect for eBAC level. This fits with previous findings that rate of consumption is associated with subjective intoxication and stimulation (Conrod et al. 1997;Conrod et al. 2001;Martin et al. 2006;Martin and Earleywine 1990), and that rising BAC is related to stimulation (Hendler et al. 2013;Martin et al. 1993). The findings suggest, as expected, that drinking at an elevated rate may serve to maximize the rewarding pharmacological effects of alcohol. ...
Rationale:
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is highly associated with alcohol use disorder, but little is known about how BPD individuals consume alcohol or the immediate effects of their consumption. There is therefore a need for research investigating drinking behavior in BPD.
Objectives:
The current study examined rate of alcohol consumption in BPD (N = 54) and community individuals (COM; N = 59) within ecologically valid drinking episodes. We hypothesized that rate of consumption would be elevated in BPD individuals. We further hypothesized that rate of consumption would be positively associated with subjective stimulation, but not sedation, and that stimulation would be associated with increased positive affect (PA) and reduced negative affect (NA).
Methods:
Ambulatory assessment was used to assess rate of consumption, subjective alcohol response, and affect in the moment (N observations = 3444). Rate of consumption was defined as change in estimated blood alcohol concentration (eBAC) relative to drinking episode start. Multilevel modeling was used to test hypotheses.
Results:
As hypothesized, BPD individuals demonstrated a faster increase in eBAC than COM individuals. Rate of consumption was associated with subjective stimulation, but not sedation, in both groups. Stimulation was associated with increased PA in both groups and reduced NA in the BPD group.
Conclusions:
BPD individuals consumed alcohol more rapidly than COM individuals. Faster consumption may serve as a means for BPD individuals to maximize the rewarding pharmacological effects of alcohol and to increase positive and reduce negative affect.
... The pharmacodynamic profile of ingested alcohol is well established. The principle effects (i.e., subjective, motor, cognitive) of acute alcohol exposure are most evident in the rising BAC curve (Friel et al., 1995;Wilkinson, 1980); moreover, individuals are typically more responsive to changes in BAC than to the absolute level of BAC (Martin et al., 2006). Although the pharmacodynamics of inhaled alcohol have not been established, it is possible that inhalation of alcohol vapor may correspond to low levels of total exposure that share features of the rising curve after acute oral alcohol exposure. ...
Decades of alcohol research have established the health risks and pharmacodynamic profile of oral alcohol consumption. Despite isolated periods of public health concern, comparatively less research has evaluated exposure to alcohol vapor. Inhaled alcohol initially bypasses first-pass metabolism and rapidly reaches the arterial circulation and the brain, suggesting that this route of administration may be associated with pharmacological effects that increase the risk of addiction. However, detailed reviews assessing the possible effects of inhaled alcohol in humans are lacking. A comprehensive, systematic literature review was conducted using Google Scholar and PubMed to examine manuscripts studying exposure to inhaled alcohol and measurement of biomarkers (biochemical or functional) associated with alcohol consumption in human participants. Twenty-one publications reported on alcohol inhalation. Fourteen studies examined inhalation of alcohol vapor associated with occupational exposure (e.g., hand sanitizer) in a variety of settings (e.g., naturalistic, laboratory). Six publications measured inhalation of alcohol in a controlled laboratory chamber, and 1 evaluated direct inhalation of an e-cigarette with ethanol-containing "e-liquid." Some studies have reported that inhalation of alcohol vapor results in measurable biomarkers of acute alcohol exposure, most notably ethyl glucuronide. Despite the lack of significantly elevated blood alcohol concentrations, the behavioral consequences and subjective effects associated with repeated use of devices capable of delivering alcohol vapor are yet to be determined. No studies have focused on vulnerable populations, such as adolescents or individuals with alcohol use disorder, who may be most at risk of problems associated with alcohol inhalation.
... Drinking patterns in women tended to reflect responses to BAC change, whereas drinking patterns in men were more associated with BAC level, and there was a greater tendency among women to self-regulate their drink- ing in response to perceived intoxication and greater influ- ence by social and environmental factors than by internal cues to intoxication among men. 128 ...
Blackouts from acute alcohol ingestion are defined as the inability to recall events that occurred during a drinking episode and are highly prevalent in both alcoholic and nonalcoholic populations. This article reviews the clinical manifestations, epidemiology, risk factors, cognitive impairment, and neurobiology associated with alcohol-induced blackout, with special emphasis on the neurochemical and neurophysiological basis, and gender differences. Two types of blackout have been identified: en bloc, or complete inability to recall events during a time period, and fragmentary, where memory loss is incomplete. The rapidity of rise in blood alcohol concentration is the most robust predictor of blackout. Alcohol impairs different brain functions at different rates, and cognitive and memory performance are differentially impaired by ascending versus descending blood alcohol concentration. Cognitive and memory impairment occurs before motor impairment, possibly explaining how a drinker appearing fully functional can have little subsequent memory. Blackouts are caused by breakdown in the transfer of short-term memory into long-term storage and subsequent retrieval primarily through dose-dependent disruption of hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cell activity. The exact mechanism is believed to involve potentiation of gamma-aminobutyric acid-alpha-mediated inhibition and interference with excitatory hippocampal N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor activation, resulting in decreased long-term potentiation. Another possible mechanism involves disrupted septohippocampal theta rhythm activity because of enhanced medial septal area gamma-aminobutyric acid-ergic neurotransmission. Women are more susceptible to blackouts and undergo a slower recovery from cognitive impairment than men, due in part to the effect of gender differences in pharmacokinetics and body composition on alcohol bioavailability.
... However, a great deal of evidence documents acute tolerance to alcohol. For example, subjective responses to alcohol are diminished on the descending limb of the blood alcohol concentration curve compared to comparable BACs on the rising limb [e.g., 76,77]. Similarly, subjective responses to alcohol diminish over time when the blood alcohol concentration is clamped at a constant level [78]. ...
Hangover may be related to propensity to develop alcohol use disorders (AUDs). However, the etiological role, if any, played by hangover in AUD is unclear. From a motivational perspective, hangover can be construed as either a deterrent to future alcohol consumption or a setting event for negative reinforcement that could promote deviant drinking practices (e.g., "hair-of-the-dog" drinking). Hangover could be related to AUD risk even if it does not play a direct role in promoting or inhibiting near-term drinking. For example, measures of hangover might serve as symptoms of AUD or as markers of individual differences that more directly account for AUD risk. Empirical evidence (though usually indirect) exists to support contentions that hangover is related to both risk for and protection from AUD. In this article, we briefly address variation in assessment strategies in existing hangover research because measures of hangover frequency and hangover susceptibility may prove to have different correlates. Next, we review the existing, limited evidence on relations between hangover and AUD risk. Finally, we sketch a variety of theoretically-informed hypotheses that might help delineate productive lines of inquiry for this emerging field.
... Interoception can be defined restrictively as awareness of visceral sensation or more broadly as effect of visceral sensory activity on molar organismal behavior, even in the absence of awareness (Cameron, 2002). Perceived alcohol intoxication is therefore within the realm of both definitions of interoception; hence, it is significant to note that a sum of tonic and phasic processes is sufficient to explain the large individual variations in the subjective response to alcohol within bouts of drinking and is correlated with self-reported alcohol consumption patterns (Martin, Balaban, & McBurney, 2006). ...
Adaptation is a universal process in organisms as diverse as bacteria and humans, and across the various senses. This article proposes a simple, heuristic, mathematical model containing tonic and phasic processes. The model demonstrates properties not commonly associated with adaptation, such as increased sensitivity to changes, range shifting, and phase lead. Changes in only four parameters permit the model to predict empirical psychophysical data from different senses. The relatively prolonged time courses of responses to oral and topical capsaicin are used to illustrate and validate this mathematical modeling approach for different stimulus profiles. Other examples of phenomena elucidated by this modeling approach include the time courses of taste sensation, brightness perception, loudness perception, cross-adaptation to oral irritants, and cutaneous mechanoreception. It also predicts such apparently unrelated phenomena as perceived alcohol intoxication, habituation, and drug tolerance. Because the integration of phasic and tonic components is a conservative, highly efficacious solution to a ubiquitous biological challenge, sensory adaptation is seen as an evolutionary adaptation, and as a prominent feature of Mother Nature's small bag of tricks.
