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A study on photosynthetic and yield effects of waterlogging of winter wheat at four stages of growth was conducted in specially designed experimental tanks during the 2007–2008 and 2008–2009 seasons. Compared with the control, waterlogging treatments at tillering and jointing-booting stages reduced photosynthetic rate (P
N) and transpiration (E) si...
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... -600 mm < -800 mm < -1000 mm < -1000 mm Drainage flow: A 2 m deep lysimeter of 2.5 × 2 m inside the instrument shed ( Fig. 1) received the pipe drainage outflow from the plots. Fifteen automatic irrigation and drainage systems were installed inside the instrument shed to measure the drainage and irrigation volume of all the plots. The number of solenoid valve opening were counted and stored by a datalogger and the drainage and irrigation volume was subsequently ...
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... conditions and plant material: The exper- iment was conducted in 15 concrete lysimeters, each of about 5 m 3 (surface area 2.5 × 2 m, depth 2 m), in Key Laboratory of Efficient Irrigation-Drainage and Agri- cultural Soil-Water Environment in Southern China, Ministry of Education (Nanjing, latitude 31°57'N, longi- tude 118°50'E, 144 m a.s.l.) during the wheat growing season of 2007-2008, and repeated in 2008-2009. The bottom of each lysimeter was filled with a 20 cm layer of coarse gravel, separated from the soil by a water- permeable membrane to allow free drainage. Drainage holes in the waterlogged lysimeters were blocked with rubber bungs. All lysimeters were painted with a water- proof material to prevent seepage through the concrete blocks (Fig. 1). The experimental site has subtropical humid climate with an annual mean temperature of 15.3°C. The mean annual precipitation is 1,051.4 mm and the mean annual surface water evaporation is 900 mm (data from Nanjing city of 1951-2009, 20 km northeast of experimental site). The soil type was clay with pH 7.78 and 2.40% of organic matter content, soil bulk density at 0-50 cm depth was 1.46 g cm -3 , field capacity was 26.47%, as mass of water on dried soil. During 2 years, plots were hand sown with winter wheat, T. aestivum L. cv. Yangmei 14, on 12 November 2007(12 November 2008 using the 135 kg ha -1 template. A week before sowing, the experimental plots were dry-ploughed and harrowed. The soil was soaked 1 day before sowing to promote good crop burgeon. Basal application of fertilizers (N:P 2 O 5 :K 2 O = 15:10:15) at the rate of 1,200 kg ha -1 was applied in the soil. The heading date for wheat (50% of plants) was on 21 April 2008(23 April 2009, and plants were harvested on 29 May 2008(26 May ...
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... Using the measured data provided by each index, the index weight was determined and the resilience of winter wheat to waterlogging was objectively evaluated. So far, most studies have focused on the reproductive growth stage of plants (Shao et al. 2013;Wu et al. 2015;Ding et al. 2020b;Jiang et al. 2022a), and it is still unclear to what extent various agronomic traits of winter wheat affect recovery growth after waterlogging is removed at the seedling stage. Therefore, it is necessary to explore the influencing mechanism of waterlogging at the seedling stage and the recovery effect at the later growth stage of winter wheat. ...
Waterlogging frequently occurs in the Huaibei Plain of China, significantly hindering the sustainable development of agriculture. This study aims to investigate the impact of waterlogging stress on winter wheat growth during the seedling stage and evaluate crop resilience after waterlogging. Tritium aestivum L. ‘Zhengmai136’ was used as experimental material at the Wudaogou Experimental Station in Bengbu City, Anhui Province, China. Variance analysis was employed to test the significance of waterlogging effects on root morphology, in root dehydrogenase activity, plant height, stem height, stem diameter, leaf area, and biomass of Zhengmai136. The resilience of winter wheat was quantitatively evaluated using the entropy method and single-factor elastic index calculation method. Results revealed that although there was a slight increase (12.5%) in the number of winter wheat roots after waterlogging, root activity decreased significantly (61.02%), with inhibition persisting until the harvest stage. Waterlogging primarily affected above-ground indices by causing leaf shrinkage (25.47% decrease) and reducing stem diameter (14.26% decrease), resulting in inhibited tiller numbers (P < 0.01) and an overall downward trend in growth rate. Yield reduction caused by waterlogging during the seedling stage (P < 0.001) was mainly attributed to panicle number and panicle number per plant decline. Regarding resilience assessment, above-ground indices exhibited better resilience than root systems while whole-plant resilience remained at a moderate level. In this experiment, waterlogging during the seedling stage predominantly hindered the growth and development of Zhengmai136 roots; however, timely plowing and effective waterlogged control measures could promote root recovery; at the same time, this experiment could provide a reference for the post-disaster management strategy of the later crop.
... The reduction of stomatal conductance and the consequent limited carbon dioxide availability in tissues intensify the reduced carbohydrate production, thereby affecting the wholeplant metabolism [2,14-16]. Additionally, nutrient imbalance and/or toxicity as a result of changes in nutrient availability in waterlogged soils also contribute to the components of decreased yields (average kernel weight, number of kernels per spike, spike number per plant or unit surface) and yield losses [15,[17][18][19][20][21]. ...
... The declines are in accordance with several studies where reductions were found due to waterlogging at the tillering stage [14,29,30,46,55]. A reduced spike number was linked to fewer fertile tillers [14,20,21,46,55], which may be attributed to reduced tiller initiation, growth, or/and an increased abortion. Slafer et al. (2014) [50] found that tiller number is the yield component that exhibits the highest degree of plasticity, and environmental constraints can affect its emergence, development, and senescence [56]. ...
Changes in the climate have led to the occurrence of extreme events that threaten the production of major crops, namely that of bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Waterlogging imposed at the tillering stage can severely affect the yield, but several genotype features may counterbalance the negative impacts on yields. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of waterlogging on the number of fertile spikes, kernels per plant, and single kernel weight, as well as to assess the main culm and tiller participation in yields. We also investigated if the growth stages affected by stress would influence such traits. The study was conducted in climatized growth chambers using 23 genotypes from five distinct germplasm groups (Portuguese landraces, varieties with the introduced Italian germplasm, post-Green Revolution varieties with the introduced CIMMYT germplasm, advanced lines from the Portuguese wheat breeding program, Australian varieties). Variability was observed between and within the groups. Ten genotypes performed well under waterlogged conditions, showing promising results. Among these, GR-2 showed a rise in tiller yield, AdvL-3 in both the main culm and tiller yield, and the remaining ones displayed unaltered values in both the main culm and tillers. PL-1, PL-5, GR-1, GR-3, AdvL-2, Austrl-2, and Austrl-4 were able to compensate for the decreases observed for several traits, reaching harvest yield values that were unaffected in both the main culm and tillers. Rises in the tiller yield or in the tillers and main culm, GR-2 and AdvL-3 exhibited either stability or increases in all the studied parameters. Results also suggest a negative correlation between the growth stage reached during waterlogging and the effect of this stress on the number of spikes per plant, plant and tiller yield, kernel per spike (tillers), and single kernel weight (tillers). Our findings may contribute to a better understanding of wheat responses to waterlogging and to the development of solutions that mitigate the socio-economic impacts of 20–50% wheat yield reductions, thereby preserving the daily 20% supply of energy and protein required for human nutrition and global food security.
... Energy metabolism of O 2 -deficient root tissues switches from aerobic respiration to anaerobic fermentation (low ATP-yielding), even though adventurous roots and aerenchyma, which facilitate O 2 diffusion from shoot to root, are developed in some upland crops such as maize and wheat under anoxic soil conditions (Hossain and Uddin, 2011;Liang et al., 2020). This energy shortage significantly limits root growth and causes the death of some roots, reducing active absorption area, hampering water and nutrients uptake, and eventually reducing aboveground growth and grain yield (Ren et al., 2016;Shao et al., 2013). In addition to the low O 2 stress, low redox potentials accumulate toxic elements (Fe 2+ and Mn 2+ ) in soils and increase their concentration in wheat shoots grown on acidic soil (Mfarrej et al., 2022;Khabaz-Saberi et al., 2006;Setter et al., 2009). ...
As the intensity and frequency of extreme weather events are projected to increase under climate change, assessing their impact on cropping systems and exploring feasible adaptation options is increasingly critical. Process-based crop models (PBCMs), which are widely used in climate change impact assessments, have improved in simulating the impacts of major extreme weather events such as heatwaves and droughts but still fail to reproduce low crop yields under wet conditions. Here, we provide an overview of yield-loss mechanisms of excessive rainfall in cereals (i.e., waterlogging, submergence, lodging, pests and diseases) and associated modelling approaches with the aim of guiding PBCM improvements. Some PBCMs simulate waterlogging and ponding environments, but few capture aeration stresses on crop growth. Lodging is often neglected by PBCMs; however, some stand-alone mechanistic lodging models exist, which can potentially be incorporated into PBCMs. Some frameworks link process-based epidemic and crop models with consideration of different damage mechanisms. However, the lack of data to calibrate and evaluate these model functions limit the use of such frameworks. In order to generate data for model improvement and close knowledge gaps, targeted experiments on damage mechanisms of waterlogging, submergence, pests and diseases are required. However, consideration of all damage mechanisms in PBCM may result in excessively complex models with a large number of parameters, increasing model uncertainty. Modular frameworks could assist in selecting necessary mechanisms and lead to appropriate model structures and complexity that fit a specific research question. Lastly, there are potential synergies between PBCMs, statistical models, and remotely sensed data that could improve the prediction accuracy and understanding of current PBCMs' shortcomings.
... The content of malondialdehyde (MDA) is an indicator of the extent of damage to the plant cell membrane [48]. When plants are exposed to saline-sodic stress, the excessive accumulation of Na + in their tissues disrupts the integrity and function of the membrane structure. ...
Soil salinization is a prevalent global environmental issue that significantly hampers crop growth and yield. However, there has been limited research on the impact of nitrogen fertilization and various management practices in alleviating saline-sodic stress in crops. In order to examine the impact of combined straw and nitrogen fertilizer application on the physiological and photosynthetic characteristics of rice in saline-sodic paddy fields, a three-year field experiment was conducted in Jilin Province, China. The experiment was conducted as a split-zone trial, where the main zone consisted of straw (S) and the secondary zone consisted of nitrogen fertilizer (N). Two levels of straw were 0 t ha−1 (B) and 7 t ha−1 (T). Four nitrogen treatments were applied: 0, 150, 250, and 350 kg ha−1, denoted as N0, N1, N2, and N3, respectively. The results show that the combination of straw and nitrogen fertilizer has been found to effectively reduce the Na+/K+ value, malondialdehyde content, and the relative electric leakage of rice leaves in saline-sodic soil. Furthermore, it increases leaf water potential, relative water content, and chlorophyll content, thereby promoting rice photosynthesis and improving rice yield. The rice yield exhibited the greatest positive effect when straw and nitrogen fertilizer were combined at a rate of 250 kg ha−1. The effectiveness of this combination improves over time. However, it is important to avoid excessive application of nitrogen fertilizer when using straw returning. This approach not only ensures stable rice yield in saline-sodic fields, but also has positive effects on the economic impact of fertilizer application and soil environment preservation.
... Nevertheless, there are some studies addressing waterlogging responses on crops in structures simulating a canopy and acknowledging plant competition that avoid water leakage by using big-sized containers or lysimeters to cultivate the canopies and impose waterlogging (Dickin & Wright, 2008;Srivastava et al., 2004;Striker et al., 2011;Wollmer et al., 2018a, b). As examples, wheat growing in lysimeters showed reductions of 20% and 50% of controls in aboveground and root DW after 1 week of waterlogging at tillering (Shao et al., 2013). Barley cultivated in containers waterlogged for 3 weeks at four-leaf stage presented losses of 22% in aboveground DW (average of two genotypes; Luan et al., 2018), together with losses in grain weight equivalent to 64% of controls in barley waterlogged at pre-flowering for 20 days (Becheran et al., 2022). ...
Waterlogging has become an increasingly important abiotic stress. To develop strategies for mitigating its effects, it is crucial to identify traits that confer tolerance. Root mass density (RMD) is a pivotal trait for waterlogging tolerance; however, the behavior of this trait during waterlogging is not well understood. Therefore, two experimental years were conducted to study the effects of early‐ and late‐waterlogging at the canopy level on wheat (Triticum aestivum L., barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.), and pea (Pisum sativum L.) crops in 1 m³ containers. The results showed that early‐waterlogging reduced RMD, green leaf, and stem dry weights (DWs) in wheat and barley. Nevertheless, they were able to recover without yield penalties. Late‐waterlogging had little impact on RMD in wheat and barley; however, it lowered the tiller number and caused accelerated leaf senescence, resulting in a 65% yield reduction in barley. Early‐waterlogged oilseed rape and pea also exhibited reduced RMD, with oilseed rape recovering with a 17% yield reduction, whereas pea was the most sensitive crop, showing no recovery and a 90% yield reduction. Overall, early‐ waterlogging generally reduces RMD, particularly in the shallow soil layer, but with recovery potential. In contrast, late‐ waterlogging affects yield by reducing tillers/branches and accelerating senescence, with little impact on RMD. Identifying these traits and their responses to waterlogging stress can aid in the development of strategies to mitigate the negative impacts of waterlogging on crops.
... Unlike the winter, lipids production in the summer reached a peak abundance for middle-aged trees. This is likely because the middle-aged trees have the greatest canopy density in the summer, which leads to a higher rate of photosynthetic production and enables higher section of lipid metabolites (Shao et al., 2013;Ali et al., 2019). Furthermore, we found that in the winter lipids comprised the greatest proportion of primary metabolites, and that there was significantly more lipid production in the winter than summer. ...
Root exudates play an important role in nutrient acquisition and defense of trees. However, there are few studies on the mechanism of productivity decline in late stage from the perspective of root exudates. Therefore, we collect root exudates in the summer and winter from 8-year-old (young), 18-year-old (middle-aged), and 49-year-old (overmature) trees in Chinese fir plantations to assess how their exudation rates and metabolite composition changed across these different life stages. Results showed that the rates and metabolite composition of root exudation varied significantly across plantation ages and between seasons. Specifically, the young Chinese fir trees increased exudation rates and produced more carbohydrates and quercetins, and overmature trees secreted more lipids and salicylic acids. This indicates that young Chinese fir plantations adopted root metabolic strategies which increased nutrient acquisition to satisfy the demands of rapid growth, but overmature plantations might produce more defensive metabolites to improve their defense capabilities. Additionally, in the winter, trees had slower root exudation rates and released a smaller proportion of organic acid, carbohydrate, and quercetin metabolites than in the summer, but a greater proportion of lipid and salicylic acid metabolites. We also found that soil microbial factors (microbial community composition and diversity) had a significant effect on the composition of primary and secondary metabolites in the winter. Overall, as plantation age increased, Chinese fir root metabolic strategies related to nutrient acquisition decrease, while those related to defense increase. These findings provide a new perspective for our understanding of the mechanisms that lead to productivity declines of Chinese fir plantations in later growth stages.
... When waterlogged for 12 days, the young leaves of P. sheareri seedlings wilted, curled, and turned yellow. Among the chloroplast ultrastructures over the same period, it was observed that the thylakoid had a fuzzy structure, and the number and volume of plastid pellets increased, which was similar to the research results of Sun et al. [60] and Liu et al. [61]. ...
Phoebe sheareri is an excellent roadside tree with a wide distribution range and high ornamental value. Excessive moisture can affect the external morphology, the microstructure, and the ultrastructure of the leaf. Little is known at present regarding the leaf structure of P. sheareri under waterlogging stress. In this paper, the external morphology of leaves, the microstructure of leaf epidermis, and the ultrastructure of mesophyll cells of P. sheareri seedlings under waterlogging stress and drainage were dynamically observed. Waterlogging stress contributed to the yellowing and wilting of P. sheareri seedling leaves, the gradual closing of leaf epidermal stomata, increasing density of leaf stomata, gradual loosening of the arrangement of leaf cell structure, and merging of leaf palisade tissue cells. Waterlogging stress forced the structure of the chloroplast membranes to blur, gradually causing swelling, and deformation, with plasmolysis occurring in severe cases. During waterlogging, the basal lamellae were disorganized, and the mitochondrial membrane structure was damaged. The damaged state of the leaves was not relieved after drainage. Waterlogging stress not only inhibited the growth of leaves, but also accelerated the closure of stomata, disordered the arrangement of palisade tissue and spongy tissue gradually, and damaged the internal organelles of mesophyll cells.
... Although the temperature profiles of the two study years were essentially similar, rainfall was relatively higher in the spring of 2014 than in that of 2013, which might have contributed to better alfalfa re-growth in 2014. Contrastingly, the summer of 2013 was somewhat wetter than that of 2014, and the associated waterlogging decreases photosynthesis in many plant species and leads to the development of leaf injury symptoms, such as wilting and chlorosis [33], and thus may have had an undesirable influence on forage growth and nutritional quality [34]. Consequently, this may have accounted for the slightly higher alfalfa yield and quality parameters obtained in 2014. ...
Although nitrogen application and cutting frequency (CF) are two important factors affecting forage productivity and quality, their effects on alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), particularly in humid areas, remain less understood. Here, we investigated the fertilization and cutting regimes for seasonal alfalfa cultivation in humid areas in southern China. Treatments performed over a 2-year period were of a split-plot design with four N application rates (60, 120, 180, and 240 kg N ha−1) and three CFs (five, four, and three times.). After cutting, forage components, yield, and quality were measured. In both 2-year cutting cycles, the effects of N application × CF interactions on forage yield and quality were non-significant. N application and CFs influenced plant height, mass shoot−1, leaf area shoot−1, and shoots plant−1. CF had remarkable effects on forage quality under different N applications, with forage cut five times having the best nutritive value and quality. However, neutral and acid detergent fiber contents were lower than when cutting three times, and produced the lowest yields. Forage cut four times had the highest in vitro digestible dry matter. In conclusion, to obtain high yields and desirable quality, the application of 180 kg N ha−1 and cutting three to four times in spring could be a suitable strategy for alfalfa forage production during seasonal cultivation in humid areas of southern China.
... Waterlogging-induced anaerobiosis reduces root hydraulic conductivity, decreasing leaf turgor and g s , and adversely affecting the photosynthetic process of plants (Shao et al., 2013). Previous studies utilized MSI and RWC as indicators of waterlogging tolerance in legumes, where relatively high values were associated with waterlogging tolerance (Garcia et al., 2020;Kumar et al., 2013). ...
... The accumulation of dry matter and the formation of cowpea seeds depend on the process of photosynthesis, which is considered one of the most sensitive physiological processes to waterlogging (Shao et al., 2013;Tian et al., 2019). Previous studies have shown that waterlogging rapidly closes stomata, damages chlorophyll content, and alters the translocation of photosynthates, leading to a decline in A, with corresponding reductions in plant growth and seed yield (Ren et al., 2014;Shao et al., 2013). ...
... The accumulation of dry matter and the formation of cowpea seeds depend on the process of photosynthesis, which is considered one of the most sensitive physiological processes to waterlogging (Shao et al., 2013;Tian et al., 2019). Previous studies have shown that waterlogging rapidly closes stomata, damages chlorophyll content, and alters the translocation of photosynthates, leading to a decline in A, with corresponding reductions in plant growth and seed yield (Ren et al., 2014;Shao et al., 2013). This study revealed that A was sensitive to waterlogging, which decreased in the two cowpea genotypes at different growth stages (Fig. 4). ...
Waterlogging is a significant abiotic stress that reduces the oxygen supply to roots in the rhizosphere, impairing plant growth and development. Cowpea is highly sensitive to waterlogging, and their grain yield is affected by genotype and growth stage. Understanding the growth and physiological responses of cowpea to waterlogging stress is crucial for developing strategies to improve crop yield in waterlogged environments. In this two-year field trial, we quantified the impact of ten days of waterlogging on morpho-physiological attributes, seed yield components, and seed quality of two cowpea genotypes (UCR 369 and EpicSelect.4) at different growth stages. Waterlogging during the reproductive (R2) growth stage had the most substantial impact on cowpea, with an average reduction of leaf area by 65%, chlorophyll content by 39%, stomatal conductance (g s) by 93%, and photochemical efficiency by 32% compared to non-waterlogged plants. These effects were less pronounced during the vegetative (V4) and physiological maturity (R7) growth stages. Lower photosynthetic capacity resulted in reduction of biomass accumulation, pod dry weight, number of pods per plant, and seed weight under waterlogging. EpicSelect.4 was more sensitive to waterlogging at the R2 stage, showing a greater reduction in seed yield (58%) compared to UCR 369 (46%). Additionally, UCR 369 maintained seed protein content under waterlogging conditions, while it decreased by 8% in EpicSelect.4 seeds. Overall, UCR 369 was more tolerant to waterlogging stress than EpicSelect.4, with the most apparent effect of waterlogging on yields occurring at the R2 stage due to the high energy demands of the cowpea reproductive process. Our study highlights the importance of selecting cowpea genotypes with greater tolerance to waterlogging stress during the reproductive stage to mitigate the negative effects of waterlogging on seed yield in flood-prone environments. These results provide valuable insights into the mechanisms of cowpea's responses to waterlogging stress and can aid in developing strategies for improving cowpea yield in waterlogged environments, which are expected to become more frequent due to climate change.
... It also accelerates leaf senescence and reduces photoassimilates, impeding shoot and root growth (Lal et al., 2022;Abdelrahman et al., 2022;Bali and Sidhu, 2019). Heat stress reduced photosynthetic Heat Shao et al. (2013), and Cotrozzi et al. (2021) rate by 17%-25%, grain yield by 29%-44%, and thylakoid membrane damage by 61%-68% depending on growth stage. Photosynthetic rate and grain yield had a significant positive relationship, but thylakoid membrane damage and photosynthetic rate have a negative relationship (Djanaguiraman et al., 2020). ...
... Oxygen (O 2 ) diffusion is quickly inhibited during waterlogging, and CO 2 and ethylene concentrations in the root environment quickly rise, causing root and shoot injury in plants. Waterlogging damage in wheat has been extensively studied around the world, and it has been reported that waterlogging in winter wheat can cause a variety of morphological and physiological changes (Cotrozzi et al., 2021;Wu et al., 2015;Shao et al., 2013). It reduces grain yield by affecting many morphological and yield traits in wheat, such as root and shoot growth, number of tillers, spike and spikelet size, and kernels per spike (Ghobadi et al., 2017;Arduini et al., 2016). ...
... It reduces grain yield by affecting many morphological and yield traits in wheat, such as root and shoot growth, number of tillers, spike and spikelet size, and kernels per spike (Ghobadi et al., 2017;Arduini et al., 2016). Waterlogging reduces photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, transpiration, decreased leaf wateruse efficiency, and restricts carbohydrate metabolism in both shoots and roots (Shao et al., 2013;Zheng et al., 2009). As a result, both the accumulation of assimilates and their transformation into grains decrease. ...
Drought, salinity, waterlogging, and extreme temperatures are major abiotic stresses that impact on the growth and yield of crop plants, including wheat. These stresses pose significant negative impacts on the photosynthetic process as well as other physiological and biochemical functions, which ultimately decrease wheat yield. This book chapter aimed to review and critically discuss the effects of the major abiotic stresses on stomata and mesophyll, as well as biochemical and metabolic processes associated with photosynthesis. Our discussion is elaborated on how photosynthesis is regulated and how enzymes, transcription factors, and phytohormones support photosynthesis in response to abiotic stresses. In addition, how to improve photosynthesis in wheat in order to mitigate the negative effects of abiotic stresses is also emphasized in the report. Wheat has a very large and complex genome, which has recently been sequenced. The known underlying molecular mechanisms involved in the tolerance of wheat plants to various abiotic stresses are also summarized and discussed. As genomics and postgenomics analyses revealed a large number of genes and regulatory components involved in tolerance to abiotic stresses, the CRISPR-Cas technology could be utilized for making new breakthroughs in the development of abiotic stress tolerant and climate resilient wheat for ensuring food and nutritional security in the changing climate.
