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Redundancy analysis (RDA) indicating the correlations between key DEGs related to different categories and root indexes. (A) DEGs related to P metabolism. (B) DEGs related to sugar metabolism; (C) DEGs related to plant hormone; (D) DEGs related to lipid metabolism. Blue and red arrows indicated various root indexes and key DEGs induced by AMF inoculation, respectively. The annotation of DEGs, filled with yellow, was listed in Supplementary Data 2. AR, adventitious root number; LR, lateral root number; TLR, total lateral root number; TRL, total root length; TPA, total root projected area; TSA, total root surface area; TV, total root volume; AD, average diameter of root; D1L: length of 0.000 mm ≤ AD < 0.500 mm; D2L: length of 0.500 mm ≤ AD < 2.000 mm; D3L: length of 2.000 mm ≤ AD < 3.000 mm; D4L: length of 3.000 mm ≤ AD < 5.000 mm.
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Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF), forming symbiosis with most terrestrial plants, strongly modulates root system architecture (RSA), which is the main characteristic of root in soil, to improve plant growth and development. So far, the studies of AMF on tea plant seedlings are few and the relevant molecular mechanism is not deciphered. In this s...
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... Inoculations of the chickpea genotypes with the three mycorrhizal species significantly improved their growth in terms of both root as well as shoot drymass, with relatively greater benefits observed in HC 3 as compared to C 235 under AsIII and AsV stresses. AM fungi compensated for As induced toxic effects on the roots by modifying root architecture Chen et al. (2021) in Camellia sinensis as well as characteristics like hydraulic conductivities (Evelin et al. 2009) by increasing the relative apoplastic water flow in host plant roots as observed in Zea mays and Solanum lycopersicum by Bárzana et al. (2012). Improved hydraulic conductivity of the roots of mycorrhizal plants might have affected the resilience of the leaves, leading to better growth (Begum et al. 2019). ...
Accumulation of Arsenic (As) generates oxidative stress by reducing nutrients availability in plants. Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis can impart metalloid tolerance in plants by enhancing the synthesis of sulfur (S)-rich peptides (glutathione- GSH) and low-molecular-weight nitrogenous (N) osmolytes (proline- Pro). The present study, therefore investigated the efficiency of 3 AM fungal species (Rhizoglomus intraradices-Ri, Funneliformis mosseae -Fm and Claroideoglomus claroideum- Cc) in imparting As (arsenate-AsV −40 at 60 mg kg⁻¹ and arsenite- AsIII at 5 and 10 mg kg⁻¹) tolerance in two Cicer arietinum (chickpea) genotypes (HC 3 and C 235). As induced significantly higher negative impacts in roots than shoots, which was in accordance with proportionately higher reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the former, with AsIII more toxic than AsV. Mycorrhizal symbiosis overcame oxidative stress by providing the host plants with necessary nutrients (P, N, and S) through enhanced microbial enzyme activities (MEAs) in soil, which increased the synthesis of Pro and GSH and established a redox balance in the two genotypes. This coordination between nutrient status, Pro-GSH levels, and antioxidant defense was stronger in HC 3 than C 235 due to its higher responsiveness to the three AM species. However, Ri was most beneficial in inducing redox homeostasis, followed by Fm and Cc, since the Cicer arietinum-Ri combination displayed the maximum ability to boost antioxidant defense mechanisms and establish a coordination with Pro synthesis. Thus, the results highlighted the importance of selecting specific chickpea genotypes having an ability to establish effective mycorrhizal symbiosis for imparting As stress tolerance.
... The functionality of plant roots gets altered during symbiosis with AMF (de Vries et al. 2021). Analysis of mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal roots of Camellia sinensis L. revealed that AMF (R. intraradices) association amends the RSA and increased the sugar content of tea roots (Chen et al. 2021), indicating that change in RSA and root sugar content might modulate the rhizomicrobiome of C. sinensis, which may directly or indirectly hamper the pathogen infection in plants. Thus, AMF-mediated structural changes in root and leaf morphology or anatomy protect the host plant from any type of pathogen interventions and minimize disease incidences. ...
Plants witness a variety of disease incidences throughout their life, ultimately resulting in reduced plant growth and productivity. Climate change or human interventions have aggravated the incidences of various plant diseases, among which foliar fungal diseases are serious threats. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are a mutualistic group of organisms that play a significant role in enhancing plant growth and resilience under varied environmental circumstances. Moreover, it is well established that AMF confers tolerance against several foliar fungal diseases. This chapter highlights how fungal foliar diseases affect plant health and the various roles of AMF in providing resistance to different crop plants. In addition, AMF-mediated alterations in the root system architecture (RSA), modulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and reinforcement of the physical barrier that prevents pathogen invasion and establishment have been discussed in detail. Furthermore, the intricate cross talk between AMF and phytohormones or plant metabolites has also been explored. Overall, harnessing the potential of AMF in imparting tolerance against foliar fungal diseases might reduce the reliance on chemical fungicides, thereby introducing an environment-friendly approach for plant protection.
... These roots are longer, thicker, and lighter in colour, and help in exploring new areas. The ratio between these two types of roots is an indicator of root architecture and the system's ability to establish a symbiosis with the ECM fungi [15], and it can be modified via environmental factors and the presence of mycorrhizal symbiosis [16,17]. ...
... Thus, under the M2 treatment, the highly mycorrhized root system offsets the reduction in total biomass. A modification in the root architecture has been reported in a few other studies, in symbiosis between T. melanosporum and different plants [16,17,30]. The competitive success of the plant and the fungus depends on a well-branched root system rich in fine roots, which, on the one hand, ensures access to resources for the plant, and on the other, is the fundamental substratum for the fungus. ...
Tuber melanosporum is an ascomycete that forms ectomycorrhizal (ECM) symbioses with a wide range of host plants, producing edible fruiting bodies with high economic value. The quality of seedlings in the early symbiotic stage is important for successful truffle cultivation. Numerous bacterial species have been reported to take part in the truffle biological cycle and influence the establishment of roots symbiosis in plant hosts and the development of the carpophore. In this work, three different bacteria formulations were co-inoculated in Quercus ilex L. seedlings two months after T. melanosporum inoculation. At four months of bacterial application, the T. melanosporum ECM root tip rate of colonization and bacterial presence were assessed using both morphological and molecular techniques. A 2.5-fold increase in ECM colonization rate was found in the presence of Pseudomonas sp. compared to the seedlings inoculated only with T. melanosporum. The same treatment caused reduced plant growth either for the aerial and root part. Meanwhile, the ECM colonization combined with Bradyrhizobium sp. and Pseudomonas sp. + Bradyrhizobium sp. reduced the relative density of fibrous roots (nutrient absorption). Our work suggests that the role of bacteria in the early symbiotic stages of ECM colonization involves both the mycorrhizal symbiosis rate and plant root development processes, both essential for improve the quality of truffle-inoculated seedlings produced in commercial nurseries.
... Rhizophagus intraradices BGC JX04B, used as the AMF isolate, was provided by the Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences (Chen et al., 2021). Consisted of a mixture of spores, mycelium, fine root segments and growth medium, the inoculum was prepared by propagating the isolate with sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) as a host for 2 months in the greenhouse. ...
... As previously described in Chen et al. (2021), mycorrhizal staining was performed according to Phillips and Hayman (1970). Specifically, for tea plant roots, root segments soaked in 20% KOH (w/v) were incubated at 90°C for 30 min in a water bath, then rinsed with tap water and bleached with alkaline hydrogen peroxide (10% H 2 O 2 + NH 4 OH) for 15 min, followed by acidifying in 5% acetic acid for 5 min, and staining with 0.05% Trypan blue in lactoglycerol (lactic acid:glycerol:water, v:v:v = 1:1:1) at 90°C for 60 min. ...
... In the first experiment, IBA treatment significantly promoted the infection of AMF on the roots of 'Pingyangtezao' cuttings (46.29%, Table 2), which was higher than our previous mycorrhizal experiments on tea plant (Chen et al., 2021;Chen et al., 2023). Same results were also found in the other two varieties, but did not reach a significant level. ...
Introduction
Adventitious root (AR) development, affected by various biotic and abiotic factors, is the most important procedure in tea plant (Camellia sinensis L.) cutting propagation. Establishing symbiotic relationships with most terrestrial plants, AMF (Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus) can mediate the AR formation of several herbaceous and woody plants in previous studies.
Methods
In this paper, effects of combined application of AMF and exogenous auxin on AR formation of cuttings from different tea plant varieties (‘Pingyangtezao’, ‘Longjing 43’ and ‘Longjingchangye’) were studied. Then we also performed RNA-Seq analysis with ‘Pingyangtezao’ cuttings aiming to find the possible auxin-related pathway of AM fungal regulation on AR formation. To accurately uncover the regulatory mechanism of AMF on AR formation of tea cuttings, rooting process were separated into four stages (S0, non-rooting; S1, AR protrusion; S2, AR formation and S3, AR elongation) at the same sampling time.
Results and Discussion
Results showed that IBA treatment increased the mycorrhizal colonization rate, especially in ‘Pingyangtezao’ variety (from 37.58% to 46.29%). Both inoculating AMF and addition of IBA promoted the AR formation, and rooting of different tea plant varieties showed different dependence on auxin. AMF could alleviate the effect of auxin-related inhibitors (2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid, L-α-(Aminooxy)-β-phenylpropionic acid and α-(phenylethyl-2-oxo)-IAA) on rooting of tea cuttings, even though the colonization of AMF was hindered at various degrees. Transcriptomic analysis showed that different numbers of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) at various rooting stages of tea cuttings with the most at S2 stage (1360 DEGs), indicating the increasing regulation by AMF with the development of AR. Similar trend was found in auxin-related DEGs, and family genes of YUC, GH, PIN, LAX, SAUR, AUX, and ABP involved in the AM fungal regulation on AR formation of tea cuttings. Additionally, AMF strongly mediated auxin transport and signal transduction pathways in tea cuttings as showed by the results of correlation analysis. Overall, interaction of AMF and exogenous auxin in promoting rooting and the preliminary mechanism of AMF regulating AR formation of tea cuttings was deciphered in this paper, which may provide a basis for further deep mechanistic research and cutting propagation of tea production.
... Plants with shallow and few roots are generally highly dependent on symbiosis with AMF. Most terrestrial plants show their dependence on AMF, including adjusting the architecture of the root system to enhance plant growth and development (Chen et al. 2021). Marginally dependent plant groups include Ananas comosus (L.) Merr., Glycine max (L.) Merr., Lycopersicum esculentum Mill., Zea mays L., Moderately dependent include Acacia mangium Willd., Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott, Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir, Highly dependent includes Allium cepa L., Carica papaya L., Coffea arabica L. Very highly dependent includes Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit, Manihot esculenta Crantz, and Sophora chrysophylla (Salisb.) ...
Suparno A, Prabawardani S, Nisa DK, Ruimassa RR. 2023. Identification of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi associated with Arabica coffee root (Coffea arabica) in the Arfak Mountains region of West Papua, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 24: 3207-3213. Coffee is a global commodity widely consumed as a beverage globally and has a high economy. Currently, the trend of drinking coffee is no longer dominated by older people but has become part of the millennial and celebrity lifestyle; therefore, worldwide demand for coffee continues to increase. Efforts to develop area expansion and productivity continue to be pursued. The Arfak Mountains Region of West Papua, located 800 - 2,500 m above sea level (masl), is a potential area for coffee plantations. The local farmers in this area have grown coffee independently and with gradual government support for the last years. Given the benefits of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF), which can increase plant growth and productivity, this study aims to identify the types of AMF that are associated with coffee plants in 4 districts, Mokwam, Anggi Giji, Anggi Gida, and Membey in Arfak Mountains region, West Papua. Identification of AMF types was observed based on the morphology of mycorrhizal spores. The research was conducted using the observation method with a purposive sampling technique from November 2022 to March 2023. Based on the observation, the coffee plants in 4 districts were associated with AMF. The types of AMF associated with coffee in Mokwam were more numerous than in other locations, namely the Acaulosporaceae Genus with five species, Glomeaceae Genus with five species, one species of Simiglomus sensu stricto, one species of Funneliformis sensu stricto, and one species of Septoglomus sensu stricto. AMF in Anggi Giji District consisted of Acaulosporaceae Genus with two species, Glomeaceae Genus with four species, while in Anggi Gida District consisted of Acaulosporaceae Genus with one species, Glomeaceae Genus with three species, one species Septoglomus sensu stricto. AMF species in the coffee plants of the Membey District are the Acaulosporaceae Genus with three species, the Glomeaceae Genus with two species, and one species of Septoglomus sensu stricto. From the soil analysis results, the soil fertility level is low; conversely, the mycorrhizal presence level is higher because of the more infertile soil, the more active mycorrhiza.
... Root colonization by AMF also affects root characteristics of host plants (Chen et al. 2021); however, there is limited information about how AMF affects diverse traits of grapevine root morphology (Agu ın et al. 2004). These changes may alter the morphology of the root system in a structural, quantitative, spatial, and temporal manner (Kapoor et al. 2008), but impacts seem to vary according to specific plant-fungal combinations and environment (Holland et al. 2018). ...
... The prevalence of significant positive correlations between RD, RL, SRL, specifically with products 4 and 2 (Table 7), corroborate these effects and reveal that AMF colonization alone (for product 2, which contained only an inorganic carrier of clay) affected grapevine plasticity by inducing morphological changes in the root system. Our results are consistent with those of previous studies that focused on AMF effects on grapevines and other crops (Agu ın et al. 2004;Chen et al. 2021), indicating that roots of AMF-inoculated plants can improve their ability to absorb and use nutrients and water in the soil under different environmental stresses (Comas et al. 2013;McCormack and Iversen 2019). ...
Agricultural bioinoculants containing arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
represent a potential opportunity to reduce the dependence of grapevines (Vitis)
on agrochemicals. This field study assessed the ability of four commercial
bioinoculants to colonize grapevine roots and their effects on petiole nutrient
concentration, berry composition, and root morphology of ‘Pinot noir’ (Vitis
vinifera) grafted onto rootstock ‘Couderc 3309’ (Vitis riparia × Vitis rupestris)
and ‘Riesling’ (V. vinifera) grafted onto ‘Couderc 3309’ and Selection
Oppenheim four (Vitis berlandieri × V. riparia). Three bioinoculants increased
root mycorrhizal colonization; however, regardless of the treatment, mycorrhizal
fungal structures were enhanced. Grapevine petiole nutrient concentration was
improved by bioinoculants. Root diameter, root length density, and specific root
length increased with greater mycorrhizal root colonization. Using bioinoculants
to reduce chemical fertilizers may be a good strategy to improve grapevine
productivity and health in cool climates; however, the impact of mycorrhizal
bioinoculants in the vineyard may differ among scion–rootstocks, edaphoclimatic
conditions, and vineyard soil microbiomes.
... The growth substrate (1-kg substrate in each pot) was a mixture of autoclaved (121°C, 2 h) soils and peat (1:1, v:v). As described in the paper of Chen et al. (2021), the soils were collected from the tea plant garden of the Tea Research Institute, Anhui Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Huangshan, China (29°41'18"E, 118°15'33"N), and the soil chemical properties were determined as follows: pH 5.13, organic matter content 5.17 g·kg −1 , available N 31.40 mg·kg −1 , available P 2.52 mg·kg −1 , and available K 76.20 mg·kg −1 . ...
Tea has been gaining increasing popularity all over the world in recent years, and its yield and quality depend on the growth and development of tea plants [Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze] in various environments. Nowadays, biotic stress and extreme weather, such as high temperature, drought, waterlogging, pests, and diseases, bring about much pressure on the production of tea with high quality. Wherein anthracnose, which is the most common and serious disease of tea plants, has earned more and more attention, as its control mainly relies on chemical pesticides. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), forming symbiosis with most terrestrial plants, participate in plant resistance against the anthracnose disease, which was found by previous studies in a few herbaceous plants. However, there are a few studies about arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal regulation of the resistance to the anthracnose pathogen in woody plants so far. In this paper, we investigated the effect of AMF on the development of anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum camelliae and tried to decipher the pertinent mechanism through transcriptome analysis. Results showed that inoculating AMF significantly reduced the damage of anthracnose on tea seedlings by reducing the lesion area by 35.29% compared to that of the control. The content of superoxide anion and activities of catalase and peroxidase significantly increased (P < 0.05) in mycorrhizal treatment in response to the pathogen with 1.23, 2.00, and 1.39 times higher, respectively, than those in the control. Pathways of plant hormone signal transduction, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis might play roles in this regulation according to the transcriptomic results. Further redundancy analysis (RDA) and partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) analysis found that plant hormones, such as auxin and ethylene, and the antioxidant system (especially peroxidase) were of great importance in the AM fungal alleviation of anthracnose. Our results preliminarily indicated the mechanisms of enhanced resistance in mycorrhizal tea seedlings to the anthracnose pathogen and provided a theoretical foundation for the application of AMF as one of the biological control methods in tea plantations.
Leaves of Camellia sinensis plants are used to produce tea, one of the most consumed beverages worldwide, containing a wide variety of bioactive compounds that help to promote human health. Tea cultivation is economically important, and its sustainable production can have significant consequences in providing agricultural opportunities and lowering extreme poverty. Soil parameters are well known to affect the quality of the resultant leaves and consequently, the understanding of the diversity and functions of soil microorganisms in tea gardens will provide insight to harnessing soil microbial communities to improve tea yield and quality. Current analyses indicate that tea garden soils possess a rich composition of diverse microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) of which the bacterial Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Acidobacteria, Firmicutes and Chloroflexi and fungal Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Glomeromycota are the prominent groups. When optimized, these microbes’ function in keeping garden soil ecosystems balanced by acting on nutrient cycling processes, biofertilizers, biocontrol of pests and pathogens, and bioremediation of persistent organic chemicals. Here, we summarize research on the activities of (tea garden) soil microorganisms as biofertilizers, biological control agents and as bioremediators to improve soil health and consequently, tea yield and quality, focusing mainly on bacterial and fungal members. Recent advances in molecular techniques that characterize the diverse microorganisms in tea gardens are examined. In terms of viruses there is a paucity of information regarding any beneficial functions of soil viruses in tea gardens, although in some instances insect pathogenic viruses have been used to control tea pests. The potential of soil microorganisms is reported here, as well as recent techniques used to study microbial diversity and their genetic manipulation, aimed at improving the yield and quality of tea plants for sustainable production.
The rhizosphere constitutes an ideal example to study the natural interdependence of biological and physical factors. Health of this biologically active unit determines the stability of most ecosystems. Multiple factors like microbial diversity, plant species, existing positive and negative interactions, and diverse physical factors like nutrient availability, pH, temperature, water, etc. regulate fitness of the rhizosphere. For example, different soil types can support different plants or microbes and therefore have differences in biochemical diversity. All plant-microbe or microbe-microbe or microbe-plant-microbe interactions, in reverse, also determine the soil quality in long term and hence affect sustenance of either a natural ecosystem or, in case of agricultural lands, the crop productivity. As far as the importance of these biological interactions is concerned, especially of plant-microbe interactions in agriculture lands, it is undeniable that we are dependent on them. However, a detailed understanding of these interactions and the intricate mechanisms involved is still lacking.
This chapter focuses on several such interactions known in nature that are responsible for improvement of soil quality or can be used for agricultural sustainability. We discuss several positive and negative interactions and their overall impact on crop yields. We highlight chemoattractants of different classes, which make the basis of plant-microbe associations and emphasize the missing links where future research should be focused. A special emphasis is on two explicit examples: (1) a tripartite communication between plant, fungi, and plant-pathogenic nematodes and (2) nitrogen-fixing symbiotic microbes in different plant species. Both examples strongly emphasize the use of natural means for either biological control of plant pathogens or for soil fertilization. Commercialization and further investments into the discussed and other related green methods have implication for improving soil quality and crop sustainability with minimal environmental impact.
Millets are popular for their nutrient richness and environmental smartness. Millets are often grown on marginal lands under rainfed conditions and are favored crop species in intercropping systems. Roots of millets are colonized by a wide range of fungi including the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. Diverse AM fungi associate with millets as revealed by the diversity of AM spores in the soils and through the examination of millet roots using molecular techniques. Glomus is the dominant taxa associated with millets followed by Acaulospora, Funneliformis, and Rhizophagus. AM fungal symbiosis enhance the growth and nutrient uptake of millets in a wide range of soil and environmental conditions. The response of millets to AM symbiosis happens despite the presence of an elaborate root system. However, the responsiveness of millets to AM fungal symbiosis tends to vary with species and genotypes of the same species. Nevertheless, the yield response of millets to AM fungal presence is not well explored when compared to other popular cereal crops. AM symbiosis also imparts tolerance in millet against abiotic stresses like drought and salinity and induces changes in the structure and diversity of microorganisms in the soil. Agronomic and cultivation practices like the application of fungicides and synthetic fertilizers, crop rotation, and intercropping are known to affect AM fungal symbiosis in millets. The development of appropriate strategies for efficient use of millet-AM symbioses would increase millet production under limited inputs in resource-poor regions.
