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Allozyme and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) data were obtained from pink salmon throughout Prince William Sound, Alaska, from two hatchery, five upstream, and 20 tidal locations distributed among five management regions collected during 1994. Screening for allozymes included 66 loci for 92 to 100 fish per sample. Thirty-four loci had variant allele freq...
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... used two sets of comparative data; one included only Baltic samples for all seven species. The second set also included samples from outside the Baltic Sea (Fig. 1), and such samples were available for all species except for northern pike which lacks Atlantic (fully marine) populations (Table 2). The Atlantic sample for the whitefish, which is also a non-marine species, was collected from a fjord with brackish water on the border between Sweden and Norway (Fig. 2). ...
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... bladderwrack there is also an indication of a barrier to gene flow at the entrance to the Baltic Sea, but it is not included among the three strongest barriers depicted here (cf. Table S2g). For herring no statistically significant differences were found among populations in the Baltic Sea, and for northern pike no sample was available outside of the Baltic as this species does not exist there SNPs were used, some caution is warranted in among-species interpretations of estimated parameters, particularly between the blue mussel and the other species. ...
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... F ST values ranged from\0.01 to 0.47. As expected G ST 0 values were higher, but the relative difference in magnitude among species were the same for F ST and G ST 0 ( Table 2; details for separate species and localities are provided in Table S1). Distinct signatures of genetic variation among sampling locations existed for each species based on various measurements. ...
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... signatures of genetic variation among sampling locations existed for each species based on various measurements. All species except the Atlantic herring exhibit significant allele frequency differences among sampling regions within the Baltic Sea, although for three-spined stickleback only one pairwise F ST value remained significant after Bonferroni correction (Table 2; Pairwise F ST values between all samples for each species are found in Tables S2 a-g). Allelic richness also varies significantly among regions. ...
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... for the barrier at the entrance of the Baltic Sea the locations of the three most important genetic breaks were unique for each species (Fig. 2). Genetic patterns for each species in this study are briefly described below as illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3, and fine scale structuring for each species is provided in Table S2a-g. ...
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... were low and non significant levels of differentiation among sampling sites of Baltic herring (F ST = 0.0009; Table 2). We found the largest genetic divergences between Baltic Table 3 Relative diversity-divergence patterns in different regions of the Baltic Sea indicated by the number of samples from each of the seven species separately that fall into either of the four relative categories identified by Swatdipong et al. (2009), (i) higher diversity-higher divergence, (ii) higher diver- sity-lower divergence, (iii) lower diversity-higher divergence, and (iv) lower diversity-lower divergence The different diversity-divergence categories do not favor any particular geographic region (v 2 = 13.846, ...
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... pairwise comparisons among pike samples were significantly differentiated from each other, with an overall moderate F ST -value of 0.03 (Tables 2, S2b) and a significant iso- lation by distance. Major genetic discontinuities distinguish the Bothnian Bay and Baltic Proper East samples. ...
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... low but statistically significant F ST of \0.001 within the Baltic Sea and the lack of isolation by distance suggests very weak genetic structuring or genetic uniformity in the region (Tables 2, S2d). The lower diversities in the northern and eastern regions contrasted with the generally higher values in the western samples. ...
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... stickleback Baltic samples were characterized by a moderate overall differentiation, although almost all samples were significantly differentiated from each other (F ST = 0.03; Tables 2, S2e) and lack of isolation by distance, though the test for isolation by distance approached significance (p = 0.095 when the Atlantic sample was included in the analysis). ...
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... F ST is 0.47 (Table 2) with a strong barrier separating two southwestern samples and a second barrier distinguishing island and mainland samples in the Baltic Proper West. High diversity at southern sampling sites contrasted with lower diversity and higher divergence in northern samples. ...
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... three strongest barriers to gene flow occur in the northern part of the Baltic, although the high overall F ST (0.14; Table 2) indicated strong genetic structuring overall, with all sampling locations being significantly differentiated from each other ( Table S2g). ...
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... three strongest barriers to gene flow occur in the northern part of the Baltic, although the high overall F ST (0.14; Table 2) indicated strong genetic structuring overall, with all sampling locations being significantly differentiated from each other ( Table S2g). ...
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... observe a variety of genetic patterns ranging from large and significant differences among sampling regions in both genetic variation and divergence, to very little differen- tiation within the Baltic Sea. The most pronounced, genetic breaks occurred almost individually for each species in different regions of the Baltic Sea, although several species showed significant pairwise differentiation between the majority of the samples (Table S2a-g). At the northern extreme, five of six samples from the Bothnian Bay showed high diversity, but no shared major genetic barrier was present in this region (Table 3; Fig. 2). ...
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... generally strong genetic distinctions observed between Baltic and Atlantic samples ( Fig. 2; Table S2a-g) coincide with a sharp salinity gradient and reduced water circulation in the Danish belts (HELCOM 2010;Johannesson and André 2006;Johannesson et al. 2011). This shared genetic barrier is now supported by a wide range of fish species, such as the sand goby ( Larmuseau et al. 2009), sprat ( Limborg et al. 2009), herring ( Limborg et al. 2012;Lamichhaney et al. 2012), whitefish ( Olsson et al. 2012a) and sticklebacks ( Shikano et al. 2010;). ...
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Studying the effect of similar environments on diverse genetic backgrounds has long been a goal of evolutionary biologists with studies typically relying on experimental approaches. Pink salmon, a highly-abundant and widely-ranging salmonid, provide a naturally-occurring opportunity to study the effects of similar environments on divergent genetic backgrounds due to a strict two-year semelparous life-history. The species is composed of two reproductively-isolated lineages with overlapping ranges that share the same spawning and rearing environments in alternate years. We used restriction site-associated DNA (RAD) sequencing to discover and genotype approximately 8,000 SNP loci in three population pairs of even- and odd-year pink salmon along a latitudinal gradient in North America. We found greater differentiation within the odd-year than the even-year lineage and greater differentiation in the southern pair from Puget Sound than in the northern Alaskan population pairs. We identified 15 SNPs reflecting signatures of parallel selection using both a differentiation-based method (BAYESCAN) and an environmental correlation method (BAYENV). These SNPs represent genomic regions that may be particularly informative in understanding adaptive evolution in pink salmon and exploring how differing genetic backgrounds within a species respond to selection from the same natural environment.This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Statistical power is critical in conservation for detecting genetic differences in space or time from allele frequency data. Organelle and nuclear genetic markers have fundamentally different transmission dynamics; the potential effect of these differences on power to detect divergence have been speculated on but not investigated. We examine, analytically and with computer simulations, the relative performance of organelle and nuclear markers under basic, ideal situations. We conclude that claims of a generally higher resolving power of either marker type are not correct. The ratio R = F
ST,organelle/F
ST,nuclear varies between 1 and 4 during differentiation and this greatly affects the power relationship. When nuclear F
ST is associated with organelle differentiation four times higher, the power of the organelle marker is similar to two nuclear loci with the same allele frequency distribution. With large sample sizes (n ≥ 50) and several populations or many alleles per locus (≥5), the power difference may typically be disregarded when nuclear F
ST > 0.05. To correctly interpret observed patterns of genetic differentiation in practical situations, the expected F
STs and the statistical properties (i.e., power analysis) of the genetic markers used should be evaluated, taking the observed allele frequency distributions into consideration.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) sampled from northern Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea drainages formed two monophyletic clades between which nucleotide divergences averaged 2.95 substitutions per 1000 nucleotides. These data were obtained from restriction endonuclease digestions of PCR products that included over 97% of the mtDNA genome and resolved 16 different haplotypes in 258 fish from 13 locations. Comparisons of haplotype compositions of populations indicated that the Bering Sea drainages and one Kodiak Island population clustered separately from nine other Gulf of Alaska populations, including one from Asia. Rates of gene flow among populations estimated from haplotype frequencies (assuming an equilibrium between gene flow and random drift) were low (about one female per generation between drainages within regions) in relation to allozyme-based estimates of gene flow for other Pacific salmon species. Much of the haplotype frequency variation was within-region variation. Haplotypes from both clades occur in many extant populations, suggesting that gene flow, population movements, or recolonization followed divergence of refugial isolates. Nested clade analysis of the geographic distribution of mtDNA haplotypes indicated that coho salmon demographic history has been influenced by recent isolation by distance and that historic population fragmentation was preceded by range expansion. These observations are consistent with effects expected from Pleistocene glacial advances and retreats.
The effect of exposure of pink salmon embryos to weathered crude oil in subsequent marine growth and survival was determined and studied the effect of oil exposure and other factors on the straying behavior of pink salmon. Embryonic exposure to oil produced sublethal effects in pink salmon that led to reduced growth and marine survival at concentrations on the low parts per billion. Oil exposure as embryos resulted in significant reduction in juvenile marine growth and in survival to adults at exposures < 5.2 ppb. Marine survival was reduced by 15% for fish exposed to < 5.2 ppb, and 38% for fish exposed at < 19.4 ppb. A report also covers retention of half-length coded-wire tags in pink salmon fry; comparison of pelvic fin clips and removal and half-length coded-wire tagging for marking pink salmon fry; selection and application of a mark and recapture technique for estimating pink salmon escapements; delayed effects on growth and marine survival of pink salmon after exposure to crude oil dumping during embryonic development; straying behavior of adult pink salmon exposed as embryos to weathered Exxon Valdez crude oil; and straying of pink salmon in southeastern Alaska.
Population genetic data of marine genetic resources add up to establish their pattern of connectivity. Such pattern determines the choice of a suitable management strategy to those resources in space and time. This study addresses the pattern of connectivity among European hake grounds upon the largest sampling effort so far developed in this species. Bayesian inference made on multilocus genotypic data provides evidence that a large genetic connectivity exists among Atlantic grounds and is mediated by significant migration rates stepping up from the Celtic Sea towards its adjacent Atlantic grounds. Therefore, the spawning biomass of the northern hake population could play a crucial role at ensuring the sustainability of southern hake fish grounds. The deepest restriction to gene flow was observed at the easternmost side of the Alboran Sea what suggests that the Almeria-Oran Oceanographic Front is an effective barrier keeping apart the two major gene pools so far shown in this species. A molecular clock calibrated for cytochrome b sequences of fishes and applied to the divergence between hake pools (0.3%) suggests that the Atlantic - Mediterranean population split might date back to the Middle Pleistocene (150,000 years BP). Complementarily, bayesian treatments of multilocus genotypes indicate that such barrier to gene flow remains active nowadays. This study shows the upmost interest of future integrative efforts to incorporate population genetic data into current assessment practices, in order to better manage European hake populations and make its exploitation sustainable.
Straying of pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) from two wild stocks (intertidal and upstream) in southeastern Alaska was estimated. Secondary factors (coded-wire tagging and transplanting of the intertidal stock) that may influence straying were also evaluated. In 1996, 321 494 fry were marked with either coded-wire tags or pelvic-fin clips. A total of 3828 marked adults were recovered in their natal streams and 79 strays were recovered in streams within 60 km of the release sites. The overall estimated straying rate was 5.1%. Estimated straying for the intertidal stock (9.2%) was higher than straying of the upstream stock (3.7%) but was not statistically different due to high variance of the estimates. The proportion of fish straying was significantly greater (P = 0.01) for coded-wire-tagged than for pelvic-fin-clipped fish for the upstream but not for the transplanted stock. Straying and distribution of the transplanted stock were more similar to those of the upstream stock, which was endemic to the natal watershed and release site of the transplant, than to those of the intertidal stock, which was the donor stock for the transplant. Although tagging may influence straying, incubation and initial estuarine environment appear to be major determinants of the natural straying of pink salmon in southeastern Alaska.
Numbers of strays (adult salmon returning to a nonnatal stream), straying rates, and distribution of strays were estimated for pink salmon incubated in oil-contaminated gravel and for an unexposed control group. The treatment groups were incubated in oiled gravel, which resulted in initial aqueous exposures for total polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (TPAHs) of 5 and 19 μg/L for a low and high dose, respectively; the control group was incubated in gravel without oil. Fry from each treatment group were marked with coded wire tags (CWTs). The numbers of tagged fish released were 65,409 from the control; 69,441 from the low-dose group; and 70,414 from the high-dose group. A total of 288,492 pink salmon were sampled for CWTs when returning to spawn in the natal stream of the experimental fish, when returning to streams within 60 km of the natal stream, and when returning to two hatcheries within 100 km of the natal stream. The frequencies of observed strays were 0.023, 0.030, and 0.025 for the control, low-dose, and high-dose groups, respectively. Although the frequency of observed strays was 30% and 9% (respectively) higher than the controls for the low- and high-dose groups, the differences among treatments were not statistically significant, and the rates did not increase with TPAH dose. Estimates of the adult straying rates (with 95% confidence intervals) within a 35-km radius of the natal watershed were as follows: 5.3% (3.4-7.1%) for the control group; 9.2% (5.1-13.2%) for the low-dose group; and 5.7% (2.8-8.5%) for the high-dose group. Most (90%) strays were recovered within 10 km of the natal watershed. Exposed fish tended to be recovered at a greater distance from the natal stream than were control fish. The estimated percentage of strays recovered within 10 km was higher for the control group (95%) than for either the low-dose (81%) or high-dose (83%) groups, and only fish from oiled groups were recovered in distant fishing areas. However, these differences were also not statistically significant. Our results do not support the hypothesis that oil exposure of embryos in intertidal spawning grounds was responsible for the high rates of straying of wildstock pink salmon that were observed in Prince William Sound after the Exxon Valdez oil spill.
The straying of hatchery salmon may harm wild salmon populations through a variety of ecological and genetic mechanisms. Surveys of pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum (O. keta) and sockeye (O. nerka) salmon in wild salmon spawning locations in Prince William Sound (PWS), Alaska since 1997 show a wide range of hatchery straying. The analysis of thermally marked otoliths collected from carcasses indicate that 0–98% of pink salmon, 0–63% of chum salmon and 0–93% of sockeye salmon in spawning areas are hatchery fish, producing an unknown number of hatchery-wild hybrids. Most spawning locations sampled (77%) had hatchery pink salmon from three or more hatcheries, and 51% had annual escapements consisting of more than 10% hatchery pink salmon during at least one of the years surveyed. An exponential decay model of the percentage of hatchery pink salmon strays with distance from hatcheries indicated that streams throughout PWS contain more than 10% hatchery pink salmon. The prevalence of hatchery pink salmon strays in streams increased throughout the spawning season, while the prevalence of hatchery chum salmon decreased. The level of hatchery salmon strays in many areas of PWS are beyond all proposed thresholds (2–10%), which confounds wild salmon escapement goals and may harm the productivity, genetic diversity and fitness of wild salmon in this region
The straying of hatchery salmon may harm wild salmon populations through a variety of eco-logical and genetic mechanisms. Surveys of pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), chum (O. keta) and sockeye (O. nerka) salmon in wild salmon spawn-ing locations in Prince William Sound (PWS), Alaska since 1997 show a wide range of hatchery straying. The analysis of thermally marked otoliths collected from carcasses indicate that 0–98% of pink salmon, 0–63% of chum salmon and 0–93% of sockeye salmon in spawning areas are hatchery fish, producing an unknown number of hatchery-wild hybrids. Most spawning locations sampled (77%) had hatchery pink salmon from three or more hatcheries, and 51% had annual escapements consisting of more than 10% hatchery pink salmon during at least one of the years surveyed. An exponential decay model of the percentage of hatchery pink salmon strays with distance from hatcheries indicated that streams through-out PWS contain more than 10% hatchery pink salmon. The prevalence of hatchery pink salmon strays in streams increased throughout the spawning season, while the prevalence of hatchery chum salmon decreased. The level of hatchery salmon strays in many areas of PWS are beyond all proposed thresholds (2–10%), which confounds wild salmon escapement goals and may harm the productivity, genetic diversity and fitness of wild salmon in this region Keywords Hatchery salmon . Straying . Hatchery-wild interactions . Prince William Sound . Alaska
Systematic genetic analyses of fish populations allow the testing of temporal stability in their genetic structures and better understanding their pattern of connectivity. In this study the pattern of gene flow between the two Atlantic stocks of the European hake has been examined for the period 2000–2002. Present analyses indicate that a large genetic homogeneity existed among all Atlantic populations in that period, and that a systematic grouping occurred between Porcupine Bank samples and Cantabric ones. This scenario is congruent with an inter-annual gene flow from central grounds of the northern stock (Porcupine and Great Sole) to Iberian grounds inhabited by the southern stock. Additionally, estimated migration figures were in agreement with the good recruitments observed in the southern stock after 2003 despite the spawning biomass was at its historical minimum. Altogether these results highlight the central role of Porcupine bank and Great Sole in making sustainable both stocks and advocate the integrative management of this hake fishery by means of a multidisciplinary assessment.
