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VISUAL REPRESENTATIONS OF THE 'SACRIFICE AND SUFFERING' APPROACH TO GENDERED MIGRATION. Sources: Heyzer 1994, Battistella & Paganoni 1996.
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Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... short, the argument is that migration creates problems because women take part in it. Figure 2 exemplifies visual representations of the 'sacrifice and suffering' approach to gender and migration. Image A is taken from the book 'The trade in domestic workers' (Heyzer 1994) and contrasts the prospective female migrant's dream of wealth and happiness with the reality of despair and drudgery experienced in migration. ...
Context 2
... own analysis of the 'sacrifice and suffering' approach to female migration earlier in this section constitutes a third example of deconstructing representations of gendered migration. The use of imagery (Figure 2) and verbal pictures such as that of Norma (above) are part of the construction of specific images of migrants which again are parts of wider political and/or academic agendas. ...
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Citations
... Madams ''buy girls who become their slaves'' (Mancuso, 2014, p. 3), they are usually at the top of the trafficking hierarchy, and they control the girls and women working for them (Carling, 2006). Madams organize victims' recruitment, they collude with government officials and smugglers to secure passage for victims, and they ensure that the victims work in prostitution after arrival in the destination country (Carling, 2005). They don't do this on their own, but collaborate with extensive criminal networks (Siegel & de Blank, 2010). ...
In 2018, the Oba (King) of Benin city in Edo state (Nigeria), a spiritual and traditional leader with significant authority, made a public, spiritual declaration on Nigerian human traffickers (especially those originating from Edo state) and proclaimed that victims of trafficking who were bound by oaths taken during the juju rituals were free. The Nigerian trafficking network relies mainly on juju as a control mechanism to keep the victims bound and subservient to them. Based on repeated in-depth interviews with young Nigerian women and teenager teenage victims of human trafficking for sexual exploitation, this article discusses how juju is used by the trafficking networks to keep their victims exploited, enslaved and indebted. Concurrently, the participants' narratives also illustrate the important impact of the declaration of the Oba for some women and teenagers in their process to leave the trafficking networks.
... These relative places and spaces in society perpetuate socially constructed differences between the two groups assigned on the binaries of gender -masculine or feminine. According to Carling (2005), gender refers to the cultural valuing and interpretation of a person's biology resulting in locally accepted ideologies of what it is to be a woman or man. Similarly, other scholars have also conceptualised gender as a manifestation of dynamic and context-specific social constructs that assign different roles, expectations, and positions used to identify men and women in societies (Nagel, 2015;Pearse, 2017). ...
In this chapter, the authors submit that embedding a gender lens has been one of the most valuable initiatives in the drive towards climate justice, emphasising social equity in climate change response strategies. Consistent with the social equity framework, they focus on how the persistent challenge of climate change continues to influence gendered migration patterns in Southern Africa and whether efforts to address this have upheld the principles of social justice. Considering the foregoing and given that most societies in Southern Africa heavily depend on rain-fed subsistence agriculture for livelihoods, and women take on the responsibility of agricultural production to provide for their families, climate change would inevitably have gendered impacts on livelihoods. Although there is limited data to prove the causal relationship, these gendered differential impacts of climate change on agro-based livelihoods may be a potential cause of the growing incidence of the increase in female migration stocks in Southern Africa.
... Furthermore, the Cameroonian government has denied 100,000 asylum seekers from Nigeria, who declare that their migration is due to fear for their lives as a consequence of the Boko Haram insurgent activities (News Agency of Nigeria (NAN), 2017). Carling (2005) noted that there is a significant number of Nigerians applying for refugee status in the European countries, and as of 2004, were the fifth largest group of asylum seekers in the world. These refugees expressed the ethnic and religious conflicts that persisted from the Boko Haram insurgency, as their main reason for asylum. ...
Migration is currently perceived as an epitome of globalization and a measuring gauge of global geopolitical mobility. In recent years, Nigeria has been faced with a series of migratory crises such as insurgency and conflict, forcing large numbers of people to flee from their various residential origins to neighboring countries as refugees and asylum seekers or within their country as Internally Displaced Persons. This study therefore explores the types and causes of forced migration due to the Boko Haram Insurgency in Nigeria. The research engages the use of content analysis to examine relevant secondary data on Boko Haram insurgent activities and the geopolitics of forced migration in Nigeria. It is reported that from the total number of 2.1 million forced migrants in Nigeria as of May 2017, 9.7% are refugees in neighboring countries while others are spatially distributed in different states around the country as internally displaced persons. The study revealed that more than 97% of the internally displaced persons migrated due to the Boko Haram insurgent activities from the northeastern part of the country. It concluded that the migratory crises in Nigeria is predominantly caused by the activities of the Boko Haram insurgent group that subsequently forced the people to flee their origin because of fear for their lives coupled with the risk of persecution and the destruction of lives and properties. The study among other things recommended the beefing up of government’s efforts to tackle insecurity as its primary responsibility to save lives and property.
... Gardner (1995) argues that the effect of migration is far continuously restructuring in response to socio-economic and cultural changes (Afsar, 2011). Carling (2005), in his study with the Filipino migrants, argued that the perception of gender relations includes the roles of men and women in society and the process through which these roles are linked to notions of "maleness" and "femaleness." However, this perception is constantly changing over time in response to the spatial changes of individuals in a society. ...
... Ислам в Европе -религия меньшинства, и европейцам сложно принять, что их сограждане исповедуют другую религию, особенно публично (Kastoryano 2004). Антиисламские настроения касаются в большей мере мужчин, чем женщин (Carling 2005). В США, напротив, религиозность мигрантов показана как фактор, способствующий более успешной адаптации в силу того, что в американском обществе сложилась традиция инкорпорирования различных религий и культур. ...
Статья посвящена изучению отношения иммигрантов из постсоветских стран в России к ценностям индивидуального выбора (показателям сексуальной либерализации) на примере допустимости разводов и сексуальных отношений до брака, а также их сравнению с аналогичными установками россиян. Эмпирическая база исследования представлена опросом мигрантов из постсоветских стран в России (2020 г., 700 респондентов), а также данными седьмой волны Всемирного исследования ценностей (2017 г.). Для выявления факторов, влияющих на консервативность взглядов в отношении разводов и добрачных сексуальных отношений использовано регрессионное моделирование. Показано, что и для иммигрантов, и для россиян предикторами нетолерантного отношения к данным событиям являются пол (для россиян частично), возраст, уровень образования, положение на рынке труда (для иммигрантов частично), семейное положение, религия. Материальное благополучие для обоих групп не имеет связи с изучаемыми представлениями. Расширенные спецификации регрессии для иммигрантов позволяют говорить, что давность приезда положительно связана только с либеральностью взглядов на допустимость развода, но не добрачного секса. Вместе с тем желание связать свою жизнь с Россией уменьшает вероятность крайне консервативных взглядов на оба явления. Формирование российской идентичности – предиктор более либерального отношения к разводам, а сильная этническая и религиозная идентичность – фактор нетерпимости и к разводам, и к добрачным сексуальным отношениям. Делается вывод, что предикторами трансформации ценностных ориентаций иммигрантов в России выступают не длительность проживания и экономическое благополучие, но уровень образования, формирование чувства общности с принимающим обществом и желание связать дальнейшую жизнь с Россией.
... Feminist perspectives in globalisation theory and policy have highlighted that gender is an important factor influencing global migration (see Kofman & Raghuram, 2015) and this recognition has created a growing interest in research on women and migration which has begun to fill the gap created by the earlier focus on the stereotypical male labour migrant (Carling, 2005). Gender gradually became more of an analytical category and migration studies has been engendered (see Herrera, 2013). ...
... With the influence of feminist movements, case studies about women in migration increased during that period. However, research adopted the 'add women, mix and stir' perspective, merely tallying women alongside men in existing male-dominated approaches to migration (Carling, 2005;Pessar & Mahler, 2003;Piper, 2005). ...
... Such research noted that alongside the increase in the number of female migrants globally, women's migration varied significantly from men's in terms of geography and migration patterns. For example, men are far more likely than women to migrate from specific regions in the developing world, while women are often overrepresented in family reunification and certain types of labour migration (Carling, 2005;Tittensor & Mansouri, 2017). In addition, according to Kofman et al. (2000), the types and drivers of migration for women have changed over time. ...
Despite this being the era of migration, no systematic theory of international migration has emerged, nor is there an academic or political agreement on ways in which migration is a ‘gendered’ process. Both theoretically and as inputs in the policy‐making process, gender‐blind approaches have actually rendered the gender dimension of migration more or less invisible. Through an in‐depth examination of the place of gender in the key theories of migration and relevant sources of data, the paper seeks to take stock of how these theories treat this dimension and investigate the cross‐sectional challenges in uncovering gender in international migration data. It, therefore, provides a critical review of both theory and data by shedding much‐needed light on their neglect of the gender aspects. Our findings based on a conceptual review of the literature and a case study based on Eurostat data on migration drivers demonstrate that migration theories and statistics typically equate gender with sex, which limits our ability to develop a comprehensive understanding of how complex gender dimensions shape the migration process. Moreover, given the extent to which existing data and theories overlook the intersectionality between the drivers of migration and diversity within migrant groups, this gap in knowledge presents an obstacle to gender‐responsive migration governance. In light of this, the paper discusses priorities for ‘gendering’ international migration research. We argue that in addition to improving accuracy and coverage of sex‐disaggregated statistics on international migration, both regular and irregular, it is crucial to develop quantitative as well as qualitative indicators to monitor the gender dimension in this area.
... 4 These studies show how women persistently challenge patriarchal notions, re-negotiate their assigned domestic roles and embrace new professional and educational successes in host countries. This perspective also opposes the one-dimensional image of refugee women as homogenous, victimised and passive followers of their men (Boyd 1989, Carling 2005, Palmary et al. 2010. ...
This article examines the emerging political and social mobilisation of Rohingya women activists in connection with the forced displacement of nearly a million Rohingya from the Rakhine state of Myanmar in August 2017. In exile, a promising number of Rohingya women have become actively engaged in social and political domains that have been historically male-dominated. The findings reveal how the internationalisation and the considerable global attention to the Rohingya refugee crisis have provided the space to navigate traditional gender roles and created an opportunity for Rohingya women to become important civic actors in this relatively nascent diaspora. Varying levels of education, age, technical and linguistic skills, along with diverse opportunities offered by the host countries, impact the (in)ability of Rohingya refugee women to play their part in diaspora activism.
... Migration can also entrench traditional roles and make gender hierarchy more rigid. The idea of losing control over women may result in physical abuse, honour killings and other cruelties (Carling, 2005;Fleury, 2016;Kang, 2003;Kurien, 1999;Pande, 2018). ...
The migration of women or female migration has emerged as an important field of research within the larger domain of migration studies and is being extensively explored under various disciplines. This growing trend can be attributed to some major developments in international migration such as rising numbers of women migrants, growth of women-centric occupations, migration of women in an independent capacity, women-related legislations and growth of gendered perspectives on various issues. These factors together increased the visibility of women in the migration process and have given rise to what has been termed the ‘feminization of migration’. This paper explores the various nuances of the feminization of migration and aspects of female migration focusing on India. It begins with an overview of the growing numbers of women in the migratory flows and goes on to determine that despite the rising numbers and increased participation of women in the developmental dynamics of migration, they remain increasingly vulnerable and exposed to exploitation. The paper also highlights some of the critical policy decisions of the Government of India. The paper concludes that feminization of migration has undoubtedly increased the visibility of women in the migration discourse but much more needs to be done in terms of generating appropriate data, highlighting women’s role in the developmental process, evolving policies for ensuring their protection and security and above all empowering them and increasing their participation in the labour market.
... Fear of being persecuted because of one's 'gender identity' (i.e., a person's individual experience of gender, which may or may not correspond to one's biological sex) [22], may also be the reason one decides to migrate. Transit and postmigration experiences also diverge along gender lines, for example risks for gender-based violence, perceptions by the receiving-country society and integration outcomes often vary between male and female migrants and also by sexual orientation or gender identity (e.g., if one identifies as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and/or intersex) [23]. Moreover, international female students compared to male students, have reported facing greater expectations to balance home/childcare responsibilities [24,25], experiencing more value conflicts regarding gender roles [26,27], and having stronger emotional and physiological reactions to stress [28,29]. ...
... International students Jordan 7 students Interviews Journals Graduate (Masters) 23 Donnell (2014) [72] To examine the associations between English language ability, participation in a reading comprehension program and attrition rates of nursing students in Texas. Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. ...
Background
International and migrant students face specific challenges which may impact their mental health, well-being and academic outcomes, and these may be gendered experiences. The purpose of this scoping review was to map the literature on the challenges, coping responses and supportive interventions for international and migrant students in academic nursing programs in major host countries, with a gender lens.
Methods
We searched 10 databases to identify literature reporting on the challenges, coping responses and/or supportive interventions for international and migrant nursing students in college or university programs in Canada, the United-States, Australia, New Zealand or a European country. We included peer-reviewed research (any design), discussion papers and literature reviews. English, French and Spanish publications were considered and no time restrictions were applied. Drawing from existing frameworks, we critically assessed each paper and extracted information with a gender lens.
Results
One hundred fourteen publications were included. Overall the literature mostly focused on international students, and among migrants, migration history/status and length of time in country were not considered with regards to challenges, coping or interventions. Females and males, respectively, were included in 69 and 59% of studies with student participants, while those students who identify as other genders/sexual orientations were not named or identified in any of the research. Several papers suggest that foreign-born nursing students face challenges associated with different cultural roles, norms and expectations for men and women. Other challenges included perceived discrimination due to wearing a hijab and being a ‘foreign-born male nurse’, and in general nursing being viewed as a feminine, low-status profession. Only two strategies, accessing support from family and other student mothers, used by women to cope with challenges, were identified. Supportive interventions considering gender were limited; these included matching students with support services' personnel by sex, involving male family members in admission and orientation processes, and using patient simulation as a method to prepare students for care-provision of patients of the opposite-sex.
Conclusion
Future work in nursing higher education, especially regarding supportive interventions, needs to address the intersections of gender, gender identity/sexual orientation and foreign-born status, and also consider the complexity of migrant students’ contexts.
... This means that male migrants are not understood as gendered 'men' but as the normal migrant. This is in line with the explanation for women's absence from migration studies put forward by Jørgen Carling (2005). He argues that women are often overlooked because, when moving for work, they are perceived as acting like men. ...
In this article, I ask how my challenges in the field can shed light on dynamics that contribute to excluding women as research participants in (climate) migration studies, and investigate the relationship between the absence of women as migrants in literature and challenges of accessing women in the field. Multiple studies have established that women-like men-migrate, and consequently have called for greater inclusion of women into international labour migration literature. Nevertheless, women still often disappear as research participants within this field. Through an investigation of literature I find that this is because women as migrants are Othered in academia. I build on this insight to investigate the dynamics that may also exclude women as research participants from other subfields of migration research, more specifically the field of 'climate migration'. Next, I reflect on my unexpected challenges in accessing the information about women migrants in coastal Bangladesh. Men in the village, who were gate-keepers in my access to women, were not immediately willing to talk about women's mobility. Rather, they tended to distance themselves from knowing these women, effectively turning migrant women into the 'Other'. Bringing together insights about the Othering of migrant women in both academia and the field, I show how both contribute to upholding systems of epistemic ignorance. I argue that an awareness of such ignorance can be utilized as a tool in fieldwork by lending sensitivity to whom we include and exclude as knowers in our research.
