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The roll-out of the fifth generation of cellular network (5G) technology has generated a new surge of interest in the potential of blockchain to automate various use cases involving cellular networks. 5G is indeed expected to offer new market opportunities for small and large enterprises alike. In this article, we introduce a new roaming network ar...
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The concept of the Metaverse aims to bring a fully-fledged extended reality environment to provide next generation applications and services. Development of the Metaverse is backed by many technologies, including, 5G, artificial intelligence, edge computing and extended reality. The advent of 6G is envisaged to mark a significant milestone in the d...
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... In such scenarios, smart contracts were employed to ensure efficient spectrum utilization while automating the enforcement of penalties against spectrum violators. In addition, [29] presented a blockchain-based architecture for 5G roaming to improve billing settlements between MNOs. The architecture employs a permissioned blockchain and smart contracts to enable secure, transparent, automated transactions for roaming users between a home MNO and a visited MNO. ...
The advancement towards 6G networks necessitates innovative solutions for efficient deployment and management of heterogeneous networks. While the synergy of software-defined networks (SDN) and blockchain technology brings cost and spectrum efficiencies to future network deployments, their impact on network performance is yet to be investigated. This paper investigates the integration of software-defined networking (SDN) and blockchain technology to facilitate seamless roaming across multiple mobile network operators (MNOs). We develop analytical models based on queuing theory, specifically using M/M/1 models to characterize network performance and validate them through extensive NS3 simulations. Evaluating three consensus mechanisms—Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT), Raft, and Paxos—our findings demonstrate Raft’s superior performance, reducing end-to-end delays by 10.7% and 18.7% over PBFT and Paxos, respectively, with increasing miners. Additionally, Raft decreases handover delays by 12.32% and 25.73% compared to PBFT and Paxos, with increased femtocell spacing. Our research also identifies cell residence time as a critical factor impacting handover delays, influenced by user equipment speed and femtocell spacing. This study offers valuable insights for optimizing network deployments and enabling dynamic mobility solutions in future multi-operator networks, paving the way for enhanced user experiences and verticals. The selection of consensus mechanisms and understanding cell dynamics emerge as crucial considerations for network performance optimization in 6G and beyond.
... In the context of the increasing development of society, in order to study the application of 5G technology in the application scenarios of the power industry and to explore the deployment scheme of the application of 5G technology in the power industry [12][13]. Through the analysis of actual cases, we study the actual application effect of 5G slicing, customized networks, and other new technologies in the power industry. Differentiated solutions are deployed for different scenarios, such as intelligent load scheduling, new energy consumption, and security. ...
In this paper, a network slice resource allocation algorithm based on delay sensing is proposed for the problems of service delay and QoS reduction, and resource utilization reduction caused by unreasonable network slice resource allocation. MIMO technology is being studied to establish a communication system that supports multiple inputs and outputs for channels. A resource preallocation method for 5G edge computing is proposed by reasonably allocating resources in the 5G edge computing environment. Then, the performance of the 5G network is optimized, and the optimized network performance is analyzed based on case studies. The results show that the buffer depth of the optimized 5G network is reduced by 1.25, the network delay is reduced by 0.02s, and the network throughput is significantly improved. This study provides the theoretical basis and technical support for the further development of a smart grid in a 5G environment.
... The main weakness of the existing authentication protocols is that attackers have the ability to impersonate a legal user at any time. In addition, the existing protocols are vulnerable to various kind of cryptographic attacks such as insider attack, bit flipping attack, forgery attacks, DoS attack, unfair key agreement and cannot provide user's anonymity [28,38,39,71] and in case of a successful attack the attacker can achieve the serial ID of user and track it even after the attack is over. ...
As we transition into the era of B5G/6G networks, the promise of seamless, high-speed connectivity brings unprecedented opportunities and challenges. Among the most critical concerns is the preservation of location privacy, given the enhanced precision and pervasive connectivity of these advanced networks. This paper systematically reviews the state of knowledge on location privacy in B5G/6G networks, highlighting the architectural advancements and infrastructural complexities that contribute to increased privacy risks. The urgency of studying these technologies is underscored by the rapid adoption of B5G/6G and the growing sophistication of location tracking methods. We evaluate current and emerging privacy-preserving mechanisms, exploring the implications of sophisticated tracking methods and the challenges posed by the complex network infrastructures. Our findings reveal the effectiveness of various mitigation strategies and emphasize the important role of physical layer security. Additionally, we propose innovative approaches, including decentralized authentication systems and the potential of satellite communications, to enhance location privacy. By addressing these challenges, this paper provides a comprehensive perspective on preserving user privacy in the rapidly evolving landscape of modern communication networks.
... These advanced antennas are poised to play a pivotal role in modern telecommunications, primarily due to their superior performance and efficiency. The integration of blockchain and smart contract technologies into the production of these antennas represents a novel frontier in research, with significant potential to enhance their security features and operational efficiency, thereby positioning them at the forefront of the telecommunications revolution [12][13][14][15]. Building on this innovative approach, the current study aims to identify the factors that contribute to the creation of an efficient manufacturing process for 5G ceramic antennas. ...
This study pioneers the enhancement of 5G antenna manufacturing efficiency and reliability by integrating blockchain and smart contract technologies, supported by an in-depth Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) analysis. At the heart of our innovation lies the blockchain-based SER-M (B-SER-M) model, which delineates ‘Subject’, ‘Environment’, and ‘Resources’ as crucial factors in the manufacturing process. Our refined AHP analysis reveals ‘Subject’ as the paramount factor, with a pivotal influence weight of 0.465, underscoring its significance in elevating production efficiency and reliability. The integration of blockchain technology facilitates impeccable record-keeping and tracking at each production stage, thereby bolstering data integrity and enhancing traceability. Furthermore, the incorporation of smart contracts streamlines operations by automating processes, enabling the rapid identification and resolution of issues. These technological advancements not only significantly elevate manufacturing efficiency but also markedly improve reliability and quality control across antenna production. The enhanced results of our study demonstrate the formidable potential of integrating cutting-edge technologies in manufacturing, presenting a solid model for sustaining industry competitiveness in an increasingly digital and interconnected realm. Our contributions lay the groundwork for transformative advancements in manufacturing practices, setting a new benchmark for the integration of blockchain and smart contract technologies in enhancing 5G antenna production efficiency and reliability.
... Under the current trend of the 5G big data information era, the world is about to enter the era of the internet of everything [1][2][3]. Although the conveniences brought by the new information age are enjoyed, the issues such as deterioration of the green environment and information leakage triggered by excessive electromagnetic (EM) radiation leads to problems that can't be neglected. ...
Nowadays there is much room for improvement in the designed synthesis of high-performance electromagnetic wave absorbers by combining metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and biomass components. Herein, 3D N-doped porous carbon cobalt/cobalt oxide (NPC/Co/CoO) composites were successfully prepared by transforming in-situ grown ZIF-67 clusters on a chitosan matrix. Analysis results showed that the N-doped carbonaceous composites obtained had unique porosity, high specific surface area, and defect-enriched structure, which provided numerous paths for electron transfer, leading to big benefits to interfacial polarization and dipole polarization. Most importantly, the ferromagnetic resonance and magnetic coupling were enhanced by ZIF-67-derived Co/CoO nanoparticles. By adjusting the content of metallic cobalt salt, pyrolysis temperature, and sample filling content, the optimal impedance matching properties of the composites could be optimized. When the matching thickness is 2 mm, the RLmin of NPC/Co/CoO-10/700-30 wt% achieved -48.97 dB at 13.52 GHz, and the effective absorption bandwidth exceeds 5.36 GHz. The composites with excellent performance prepared by a controllable process using chitosan and ZIF-67 might be a promising alternative for the large-scale preparation of high-frequency electromagnetic wave absorbers.
... Many frameworks for DLT integration in roaming were proposed. The solution introduced in [79], employs a HLF-based roaming architecture that enables nontrusting mobile carriers to conduct peer-to-peer selftransactions using SC agreements to simplify charging and billing settlements. Moreover, [80] presents a new Ethereumbased Decentralized Application (DApp)-based architecture for Local 5G Operators to enable offload and roaming services, as well as other services such as automatic selection of the best-rated network for a subscriber and automatic execution of load balancing techniques. ...
Cellular networks have played a critical role in building today’s Internet. However, they are facing more and more challenges such as softwarization and programmability, decentralization, as well as opening to new business models, while keeping a very high level of trust and reliability. DLT (Distributed Ledger Technology) is a promising field to address these challenges in an innovative way. In this paper, we present a comprehensive analysis of DLT applications for cellular networks, covering the Radio Access Network (RAN), Core Network (CN), Applications & services, as well as Inter-actor communication & cooperation.
... The reference in [279] proposed the B-RAN to established trust between distinct groups for deep integration and efficient interaction by codification of six hierarchical functional layers in building trust with key enabling technologies in overcoming obstacles. Roaming network architecture based blockchain smart contract 5G networks is proposed in [280] to improves the visibility for mobile network operator's activities in the visited networks, to enable fast payment and prevent fraudulent transactions. The importance of hash access in blockchain RAN is emphasize from a game theory perspective on transmission success probability, access delay, and network throughput [281]. ...
The realization of open-source-defined wireless networks in the telecommunication domain is accomplished through the fifth-generation network (5G). In contrast to its predecessors (3G and 4G), the 5G network can support a wide variety of heterogeneous use cases with challenging requirements from both the Internet and the Internet of Things (IoT). The future sixth-generation (6G) network will not only extend 5G capabilities but also innovate new functionalities to address emerging academic and engineering challenges. The research community has identified these challenges could be overcome by open-source-defined wireless networks, which is based on open-source software and hardware. In this survey, we present an overview of different aspects of open-source-defined wireless networks, comprising motivation, frameworks, key technologies, and implementation. We start by introducing the motivation and explore several frameworks with classification into three different categories: black-box, grey-box, and white-box. We review research efforts related to open-source-defined Core Network (CN), Radio Access Network (RAN), Multi-access Edge Computing (MEC), the capabilities of security threats, open-source hardware, and various implementations, including testbeds. The last but most important in this survey, lessons learned, future research direction, open research issues, pitfalls, and limitations of existing surveys on open-source wireless networks are included to motivate and encourage future research.
... Smart contracts (software on the blockchain) help enforce trusted rules for 6G networks [2] [3]. However, before using a smart contract, there is a separate deployment step [4] (predeployment step), which puts the code of a smart contract into the blockchain and instantiates it. ...
div>Smart contract-based methods are used to implement the blockchain applications. While smart contracts have separate pre-deployed steps, which are suitable for applications that are deployed once and invoked many times. However, there are smart contracts that are used only one time (the disposable smart contract) or few times. Pre-deployment requires an additional step and additional transactions, which bring burdens (such as longer waiting time and more transaction fees) to users. In this paper, we propose a new Lifecycle model of smart contracts, which allows combining the pre-deployment with function invocations. This facilitates the usage of the disposable smart contract, as users are only required to send one transaction to perform both the pre-deployment and the function invocation. Together with the smart contract separation, it also allows participants to customize their special smart contracts at the request time. At last, we verify the proposed model and it shows the potential to save additional burden and to facilitate the usage of the smart contract.</div
... Smart contracts (software on the blockchain) help enforce trusted rules for 6G networks [2] [3]. However, before using a smart contract, there is a separate deployment step [4] (predeployment step), which puts the code of a smart contract into the blockchain and instantiates it. ...
div>Smart contract-based methods are used to implement the blockchain applications. While smart contracts have separate pre-deployed steps, which are suitable for applications that are deployed once and invoked many times. However, there are smart contracts that are used only one time (the disposable smart contract) or few times. Pre-deployment requires an additional step and additional transactions, which bring burdens (such as longer waiting time and more transaction fees) to users. In this paper, we propose a new Lifecycle model of smart contracts, which allows combining the pre-deployment with function invocations. This facilitates the usage of the disposable smart contract, as users are only required to send one transaction to perform both the pre-deployment and the function invocation. Together with the smart contract separation, it also allows participants to customize their special smart contracts at the request time. At last, we verify the proposed model and it shows the potential to save additional burden and to facilitate the usage of the smart contract.</div
... It handles exchange of all the roaming related information among home and visitor networks, and enables billing settlement. Use of such a centralized entity increases security and trust concerns in addition to the cost overheads [6]. Blockchain and smart contract based decentralized roaming services can be built by a consortium of mobile operators to eliminate the use of clearing house. ...
The next generation of mobile networks, i.e., sixth-generation (6G), is expected by 2030, with already burgeoning research efforts towards this goal. Along with other various candidate technologies, blockchain is envisioned to enable and enhance various key functionalities of 6G networks. Accordingly, the main objective of this paper is threefold: 1) to categorize the different aspects of 6G into four emerging directions that anticipate significant advancements leveraging blockchain, 2) to discuss the potential role of blockchainized 6G under each key emerging direction, 3) to expound on the technical challenges in blockchaining 6G along with possible solutions.
