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Response time in the sentence phase. The grand means of the response time are presented for each condition. The error bars indicate the standard error of the mean across the study participants. A Response time for each hierarchical condition in the syntactic task is presented for the non-randomized condition (left) and the phrase order randomized condition (right). Red, blue, and green indicate low-level, middle-level, and high-level hierarchy conditions, respectively. B Response time for each randomization condition in the semantic task is presented. Red, blue, and green indicate non-randomized, phrase order randomized, and word order randomized conditions, respectively
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The right posterolateral portions of the cerebellum (crus-I/II) are involved in language processing. However, their functional role in language remains unknown. The cerebellum is hypothesized to acquire an internal model that is a functional copy of mental representations in the cerebrum and to contribute to cognitive function. In this research, ba...
Citations
... Thus, creating biologically-constrained ANN models is essential to elucidate the computational processes of brain circuits involved in language processing. Language comprehension after word recognition requires cooperation between the left neocortical language area and the right lateral cerebellum (right Crus I/II) [4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17] . The cerebellum has a large capacity for plasticity, and interestingly, according to recent observations that childhood damage to the right cerebellum causes more permanent and severe language deficits than adult damage [18][19][20][21] and that the right cerebellum is activated during learning of new language tasks 16,22,23 , cerebellar language acquisition is considered to support subsequent acquisition in the neocortex 15,18,19 . ...
... Although neural activity related to this function has also been reported in neocortical language areas 1,3,24 , more substantial evidence including causality has accumulated for the cerebellum [6][7][8][9] . The second function is (2) grammatical processing, especially syntactic recognition of subject-verb-object (S-V-O) information 5,[11][12][13]17,28 . These two language functions reflect two more general cerebellar functions that support a variety of cognitive functions. ...
The cerebellum, interconnected with the cerebral neocortex, plays a vital role in human-characteristic cognition such as language processing, however, knowledge about the underlying circuit computation of the cerebellum remains very limited. To gain a better understanding of the computation underlying cerebellar language processing, we developed a biologically constrained cerebellar artificial neural network (cANN) model, which implements the recently identified cerebello-cerebellar recurrent pathway. We found that while cANN acquires prediction of future words, another function of syntactic recognition emerges in the middle layer of the prediction circuit. The recurrent pathway of the cANN was essential for the two language functions, whereas cANN variants with further biological constraints preserved these functions. Considering the uniform structure of cerebellar circuitry across all functional domains, the single-circuit computation, which is the common basis of the two language functions, can be generalized to fundamental cerebellar functions of prediction and grammar-like rule extraction from sequences, that underpin a wide range of cerebellar motor and cognitive functions. This is a pioneering study to understand the circuit computation of human-characteristic cognition using biologically-constrained ANNs.
... First, is semantics. Semantics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the assessment of meaning in language (Nakatani et al., 2023). This branch of linguistics focuses on how words, phrases, sentences and discourses transmit meaning and how the meaning of language elements is related to the subjects and concepts they represent (Matsui et al., 2022). ...
Semantics and pragmatics, as theoretical frameworks, continue to prove their appropriateness in the examination of literary texts and conversations, as well as in songs and music. This denotes that the two theoretical frameworks cannot solely be constricted within the parameters of general linguistics; instead, they are applicable to other disciplines or subject areas. In view of this fact, this article aims to uncover the covert meanings in Taylor Swift’s “Look What You Made Me Do” lyrical song. To do this, semantic and pragmatic theoretical frameworks are applied, while the song itself is acknowledged as a primary source of data. The objective of this article is to demonstrate the development of semantics and pragmatics, as theoretical perspectives, and the ways in which meaning can be explicated using these theoretical perspectives in the chosen song and other areas of interest. Ultimately, the overall objective is to demonstrate how words, phrases and sentences may be understood differently by language users. The results and discussions validate that Taylor Swift uses different linguistic techniques, as well as metaphorical expressions to communicate her message to her audience. Nevertheless, such abilities of this singer and songwriter may not always be clear to everyone, hence the necessity to apply semantic and pragmatic theoretical lenses. The closing remarks underline the importance of continuing to develop the two theoretical perspectives beyond the limitations of general linguistics. In addition to this, the closing remarks underscore the synergetic relationship that exists between language and music.
... A growing body of evidence suggests that the cerebellum's well-established roles in precise timing, error correction, and constructing predictive models extend beyond the motor domain and into cognitive, linguistic, and affective pnas.org domains (58,59,(69)(70)(71)(72)(73)(74). Studies have revealed a distinct functional topography of the cerebellum. ...
Humans may retrieve words from memory by exploring and exploiting in “semantic space” similar to how nonhuman animals forage for resources in physical space. This has been studied using the verbal fluency test (VFT), in which participants generate words belonging to a semantic or phonetic category in a limited time. People produce bursts of related items during VFT, referred to as “clustering” and “switching.” The strategic foraging model posits that cognitive search behavior is guided by a monitoring process which detects relevant declines in performance and then triggers the searcher to seek a new patch or cluster in memory after the current patch has been depleted. An alternative body of research proposes that this behavior can be explained by an undirected rather than strategic search process, such as random walks with or without random jumps to new parts of semantic space. This study contributes to this theoretical debate by testing for neural evidence of strategically timed switches during memory search. Thirty participants performed category and letter VFT during functional MRI. Responses were classified as cluster or switch events based on computational metrics of similarity and participant evaluations. Results showed greater hippocampal and posterior cerebellar activation during switching than clustering, even while controlling for interresponse times and linguistic distance. Furthermore, these regions exhibited ramping activity which increased during within-patch search leading up to switches. Findings support the strategic foraging model, clarifying how neural switch processes may guide memory search in a manner akin to foraging in patchy spatial environments.
... Qualitative scores were also associated with GM density in the right posterolateral cerebellum. This cerebellar region (corresponding to Crus II) shows functional connectivity with the cerebral hubs of the default-mode network [54] and is involved in semantic processing [55]. ...
We explored the methodological value of an item-level scoring procedure applied to the Boston Naming Test (BNT), and the extent to which this scoring approach predicts grey matter (GM) variability in regions that sustain semantic memory. Twenty-seven BNT items administered as part of the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative were scored according to their “sensorimotor interaction” (SMI) value. Quantitative scores (i.e., the count of correctly named items) and qualitative scores (i.e., the average of SMI scores for correctly named items) were used as independent predictors of neuroanatomical GM maps in two sub-cohorts of 197 healthy adults and 350 mild cognitive impairment (MCI) participants. Quantitative scores predicted clusters of temporal and mediotemporal GM in both sub-cohorts. After accounting for quantitative scores, the qualitative scores predicted mediotemporal GM clusters in the MCI sub-cohort; clusters extended to the anterior parahippocampal gyrus and encompassed the perirhinal cortex. This was confirmed by a significant yet modest association between qualitative scores and region-of-interest-informed perirhinal volumes extracted post hoc. Item-level scoring of BNT performance provides complementary information to standard quantitative scores. The concurrent use of quantitative and qualitative scores may help profile lexical–semantic access more precisely, and might help detect changes in semantic memory that are typical of early-stage Alzheimer’s disease.
... These psycholinguistic variables can help us thus understand the nature of the spontaneous language impairments in children with cerebellar tumours. For example, while previous studies reported lexical and morphosyntactic difficulties in children with posterior fossa tumours, semantic processing was never investigated in children after cerebellar tumour surgery [51,52]. It was, however, associated with cerebellar functioning in individuals without neural damage and thus research is also warranted in case of cerebellar lesion. ...
... These were identified with the psycholinguistic noun and verb component. This is a unique contribution of the present study, as semantic processing has not been distinguished from lexical processing in previous studies, even though cerebellar involvement in semantic processing has been reported in non-neurological-impaired individuals [51,52]. At the lexical level, three out of twelve patients showed impairments which were detected across all included lexical variables (e.g., lexical correctness, AoA, word frequency). ...
Following cerebellar tumour surgery, children may suffer impairments of spontaneous language. Yet, the language processing deficits underlying these impairments are poorly understood. This study is the first to try to identify these deficits for four levels of language processing in cerebellar tumour survivors. The spontaneous language of twelve patients who underwent cerebellar tumour surgery (age range 3–24 years) was compared against his or her controls using individual case statistics. A distinction was made between patients who experienced postoperative cerebellar mutism syndrome (pCMS) and those who did not. Time since surgery ranged between 11 months and 12;3 years. In order to identify the impaired language processing levels at each processing level (i.e., lexical, semantic, phonological and/or morphosyntactic) nouns and verbs produced in the spontaneous language samples were rated for psycholinguistic variables (e.g., concreteness). Standard spontaneous language measures (e.g., type-token ratio) were calculated as well. First, inter-individual heterogeneity was observed in the spontaneous language outcomes in both groups. Nine out of twelve patients showed language processing deficits three of whom were diagnosed with pCMS. Results implied impairments across all levels of language processing. In the pCMS-group, the impairments observed were predominantly morphosyntactic and semantic, but the variability in nature of the spontaneous language impairments was larger in the non-pCMS-group. Patients treated with cerebellar tumour surgery may show long-term spontaneous language impairments irrespective of a previous pCMS diagnosis. Individualised and comprehensive postoperative language assessments seem necessary, given the inter-individual heterogeneity in the language outcomes.
... It has been reported that the posterior CrusII of the cerebellum is specialized for social mentalization and emotional self-experiences [46]. On the other hand, the posterior cerebellar lobules, including Crus I, II, and VI, are associated with clinical symptoms of ASD, like language processing skills [47]. ...
Background
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired social and communication skills, narrow interests, and repetitive behavior. It is known that the cerebellum plays a vital role in controlling movement and gait posture. However, recently, researchers have reported that the cerebellum may also be responsible for other functions, such as social cognition, reward, anxiety, language, and executive functions.
Methods
In this study, we ascertained volumetric differences from cerebellar lobular analysis from children with ASD, ASD siblings, and typically developing healthy controls. In this cross-sectional study, a total of 30 children were recruited, including children with ASD (N = 15; mean age = 27.67 ± 5.1 months), ASD siblings (N = 6; mean age = 17.5 ± 3.79 months), and typically developing children (N = 9; mean age = 17.67 ± 3.21 months). All the MRI data was acquired under natural sleep without using any sedative medication. We performed a correlation analysis with volumetric data and developmental and behavioral measures obtained from these children. Two-way ANOVA and Pearson correlation was performed for statistical data analysis.
Results
We observed intriguing findings from this study, including significantly increased gray matter lobular volumes in multiple cerebellar regions including; vermis, left and right lobule I–V, right CrusII, and right VIIb and VIIIb, respectively, in children with ASD, compared to typically developing healthy controls and ASD siblings. Multiple cerebellar lobular volumes were also significantly correlated with social quotient, cognition, language, and motor scores with children with ASD, ASD siblings, and healthy controls, respectively.
Conclusions
This research finding helps us understand the neurobiology of ASD and ASD-siblings, and critically advances current knowledge about the cerebellar role in ASD. However, results need to be replicated for a larger cohort from longitudinal research study in future.
... It has been reported that the posterior CrusII of the cerebellum is specialized for social mentalization and emotional self-experiences [46]. On the other hand, the posterior cerebellar lobules, including Crus I, II, and VI, are associated with clinical symptoms of ASD, like language processing skills [47]. ...
Background
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired social and communication skills, narrow interests, and repetitive behavior. It is known that the cerebellum plays a vital role in controlling movement and gait posture. However, recently, researchers have reported that the cerebellum may also be responsible for other functions, such as social cognition, reward, anxiety, language, and executive functions.
Methods
In this study, we ascertained volumetric differences from cerebellar lobular volumetric analysis from children with ASD, ASD siblings, and typically developing children. We also performed a correlation analysis of these children's developmental and behavioral measures. In this cross-sectional study, MRI data were acquired under natural sleep when participants aged between 1 and 3 years. Two-way ANOVA and Pearson correlation was performed for statistical data analysis.
Results
We observed intriguing findings from this study, including significantly increased gray matter lobular volumes in vermis, left and right lobule I-V, right CrusII, and right VIIb and VIIIb, respectively, in children with ASD, compared to typically developing healthy controls and ASD siblings. Multiple cerebellar lobular volumes were also significantly correlated with social quotient, cognition, language, and motor scores with children with ASD, ASD siblings, and healthy controls, respectively.
Conclusions
This research finding helps us understand the neurobiology of ASD and critically advances current knowledge about the cerebellar role in ASD. However, results need to be replicated for a larger cohort from longitudinal research.
... It is also interesting to note that the expression of these genes in the brain is associated with significantly different developmental trajectories in only a few regions, most saliently the cerebellum (Buisan et al., 2022) (see also , and for that region, with evidence of heritability depletion measures in just one lobule (Crus II) (Carrion-Castillo and , most frequently implicated in complex sociocommunicative functions (Van Overwalle et al., 2020;Nakatani et al., 2022). This may ultimately related to claims of enhanced turn-taking in our species (Kendrick et al., 2020;Levinson, 2022), with effects on language use. ...
This paper makes three interconnected claims: (i) the “human condition” cannot be captured by evolutionary narratives that reduce it to a recent ‘cognitive modernity', nor by narratives that eliminates all cognitive differences between us and out closest extinct relatives, (ii) signals from paleogenomics, especially coming from deserts of introgression but also from signatures of positive selection, point to the importance of mutations that impact neurodevelopment, plausibly leading to temperamental differences, which may impact cultural evolutionary trajectories in specific ways, and (iii) these trajectories are expected to affect the language phenotypes, modifying what is being learned and how it is put to use. In particular, I hypothesize that these different trajectories influence the development of symbolic systems, the flexible ways in which symbols combine, and the size and configurations of the communities in which these systems are put to use.
... The Crus II and lobule VI/VIII occupy a major part of the posterior cerebellar hemisphere (76). These altered cerebellar GMV regions were considered to connect and function together with the cerebrum for high-level cognitive operations, such as sensorimotor control, language, verb generation, working memory, spatial processing, and emotion processing (67,(77)(78)(79)(80)(81)(82)(83). More specifically, the Crus II was regarded as a critical hub in a recent functional connectome study of healthy volunteers. ...
Background
In schizophrenia, the structural changes in the cerebellum are associated with patients’ cognition and motor deficits. However, the findings are inconsistent owing to the heterogeneity in sample size, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners, and other factors among them. In this study, we conducted a meta-analysis to characterize the anatomical changes in cerebellar subfields in patients with schizophrenia.
Methods
Systematic research was conducted to identify studies that compare the gray matter volume (GMV) differences in the cerebellum between patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls with a voxel-based morphometry (VBM) method. A coordinate-based meta-analysis was adopted based on seed-based d mapping (SDM) software. An exploratory meta-regression analysis was conducted to associate clinical and demographic features with cerebellar changes.
Results
Of note, 25 studies comprising 996 patients with schizophrenia and 1,109 healthy controls were included in the present meta-analysis. In patients with schizophrenia, decreased GMVs were demonstrated in the left Crus II, right lobule VI, and right lobule VIII, while no increased GMV was identified. In the meta-regression analysis, the mean age and illness duration were negatively associated with the GMV in the left Crus II in patients with schizophrenia.
Conclusion
The most significant structural changes in the cerebellum are mainly located in the posterior cerebellar hemisphere in patients with schizophrenia. The decreased GMVs of these regions might partly explain the cognitive deficits and motor symptoms in patients with schizophrenia.
... A growing body of evidence suggests that the cerebellum's well-established roles in precise timing, error correction, and constructing predictive models extend beyond the motor domain and into cognitive, linguistic, and affective pnas.org domains (58,59,(69)(70)(71)(72)(73)(74). Studies have revealed a distinct functional topography of the cerebellum. ...
Humans may retrieve words from memory by exploring and exploiting in linguistic "space" similar to hownon-human animals forage for resources in physical space. This has been studied using the verbalfluency test (VFT), in which participants generate words belonging to a semantic or phonetic category in alimited time. The foraging in mind model proposes that individuals performing VFT monitor their responseproduction rate as they search through and deplete a local patch (subcategory) of items in memory andthen switch to a new patch in another part of semantic or phonetic space. An alternative model holds thatparticipants use a random walk process, and switches are merely epiphenomenal long steps reflectingthe tail of the random walk step size distribution. This study tests these competing theories by examiningwhether there is distinct neural activity during exploring between ("switching") versus exploiting within("clustering") related response groupings (foraging), or no neural differences between search phases(random walk). Thirty participants performed category and letter VFT during functional magneticresonance imaging. Responses were categorized as cluster or switch events based on computationalmetrics of similarity and participant evaluations. Findings provide neural evidence of a cognitive foragingprocess, with greater hippocampal and cerebellar activation during switching compared to clustering,even while controlling for greater semantic and phonetic distance and response times. Furthermore,these regions exhibited ramping activity leading up to switch events. These results clarify how neuralswitch processes may guide memory searches in a manner akin to foraging in patchy spatialenvironments.
