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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY: The North American population is changing, reflecting a population dominated by globally diverse cultures. This demographic change is revealing implications for protected area managers in provision of visitor services. This has prompted natural resource agencies to study racial/ ethnic groups and their respective recreation behav...
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... In our study, gender had a limited effect on constraints to participate in birdwatching but being female did increase the likelihood of expressing a structural constraint. Although some studies have shown that women tend to have more constraints than men do with respect to overall outdoor recreation participation, gender does tend to have less effect on constraints for birdwatching and wildlife viewing among existing participants (Shinew et al., 2006;Bustam et al., 2011;Ghimire et al., 2014;Lee et al., 2015). These studies also show women tend to become involved in birdwatching later in life than men and that has been attributed to structural constraints like having free time from familial and work obligations or money to invest in equipment or travel (Lessard et al., 2018;Moore et al., 2008). ...
... Intrapersonal constraints that stemmed from an aversion to specific aspects of hunting (e.g., guns, killing animals, and eating meat or game) were common relative to other first cycle constraints. Our findings demonstrate previous claims that, as with other forms of outdoor recreation, constraints to hunting are unique for people who identify as female, and that certain activities may be perceived differently across genders (Alexandris & Carroll, 1997;Bustam et al., 2011;Green 2012;Metcalf et al., 2015). ...
Wildlife-related recreationists play an important role in conservation. Understanding constraints to wildlife-related activities is critical for maintaining or increasing participation in activities like birdwatching and hunting. A mail-out survey was administered to a generalized sample representative of U.S. residents (i.e., not specific to birdwatching or hunting) in early 2017 to determine what would limit them from participating in birdwatching and hunting (n = 1030). We employed a concurrent nested mixed-methods design: open-ended responses were thematically coded qualitatively in two distinct cycles (i.e., inductive, and then mixed inductive-deductive coding), and then the probability of expressing the second cycle codes was quantitatively modeled using multinomial logit models for the respective activities. Doing so empirically determined various groups' constraints that are important to recruitment, retention, and reactivation (R 3) efforts for birdwatching and hunting. We found that the likelihood of experiencing unique constraints varied based on sociodemographic characteristics, and these relationships differed between birdwatching and hunting. Gender had a limited effect on constraints to birdwatching but was a strong indicator of intrapersonal constraints and limitations to involvement in hunting. The likelihood of expressing structural constraints decreased with age for both activities. Possessing strong social ties to the activities tended to reduce the likelihood of expressing constraints overall but this was especially true for hunting. Our findings inform R 3 efforts for wildlife-related recreation and provide direct results that organizations can apply in seeking to help Americans negotiate constraints and increase and diversify participation in wildlife-related recreation and conservation behavior. Management implications: Our results have implications for recruitment, retention, and reactivation (R 3) efforts to increase participation in birdwatching and hunting. Those seeking to increase participation in birdwatching should prioritize younger segments of the population because they expressed more constraints than older segments except for limited capacity to participate. For hunting, gender was a key variable in determining expressed constraints; identifying as female increased the likelihood of expressing intrapersonal constraints and limitations in involvement. For both activities, possessing strong social ties (i.e., family, and close friends) to both activities were effective in decreasing the likelihood of expressing many constraints. Organizations seeking to recruit new participants to birdwatching or hunting should develop programs that encourage existing participants to involve friends and family with the activities and foster interest in the activities among non-participants.
... The economic cost of participating in outdoor activities serves as a constraint for many participants-especially in regard to one's ability or willingness to purchase gear and equipment. Research into constraints has been conducted on how race/ethnicity and/or gender impacts one's participation (Bustam et al., 2011;Schwartz & Corkery, 2011). Schwartz & Corkery (2011) found that both women and people of color were affected by socialization/subculture and economic/access barriers. ...
... Hispanics reported higher levels of transportation, economic, knowledge, fear of crime and health constraints compared to White participants. Bustam et al., (2011) found African Americans perceived constraints were greatly impacted by their income-those earning less had greater intrapersonal and structural constraints. Hispanics revealed differences based on age and income. ...
... Those with less education had greater intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural constraints compared to those with a higher level of education. Those with lower incomes experienced greater intrapersonal, interpersonal and structural constraints compared to those with higher incomes (Bustam et al., 2011). ...
Student research project on spending trends on outdoor recreation in the state of Virginia.
... In addition, Black people historically have had less access to leisure opportunities, which may still influence their behavior today (Fernandez et al., 2013). Further, Black people experience more constraints and barriers to participation in outdoor recreation compared to other ethnic populations (Bustam et al., 2011;Ghimire et al., 2014;Washburne & Wall, 1980). Identification of these constraints to participation has been a driving force in the continued study of participation barriers faced by ethnic communities in their pursuit of outdoor recreation activities (Cerin et al., 2010;Dorwart et al., 2019) because they influence individuals" leisure preferences and participation (Crawford et al., 1987). ...
The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore perceived constraints of structured outdoor recreation experiences for students attending a Historically Black College/University (HBCU). Data were collected from four focus group sessions. Grounded Theory was used to analyze the data and from an analysis of data, four themes emerged: 1. Family impact, 2. Companionship, 3. Social media and technology, and 4. HBCU and Black American cultures. This study confirmed the importance of social companionship and the need for relevant marketing strategies as motivators for Black student participation in outdoor recreation activities at this HBCU. A common thread among the groups, was the perception of Whiteness in outdoor spaces and its negative impact on outdoor recreation involvement.
... The rapid demographic changes being experienced in the USA and other developed countries are exposing several implications for resource managers in the provision of outdoor recreation services and opportunities to the many ethnic and racial groups [28,29]. This study, though focused on the state of Alabama, does have relevance for natural resource managers and outdoor recreation service providers on public lands in other parts of the USA and the world. ...
Like many other states in south-east USA, Alabama is blessed with a high percentage of natural areas. These areas support vital nature tourism and the outdoor recreation sector. This study was undertaken at the Bankhead National Forest (BNF) and Sipsey Wilderness Area (SWA), significant hubs for outdoor recreation in northwestern Alabama. The goal of this study was to collect baseline information that could be used to develop tools and strategies for increasing the diversity of users participating in outdoor recreation at BNF/SWA. A pretested questionnaire was administered to visitors at eight outdoor recreation sites in the BNF/SWA. Adults encountered at study locations were invited, after their visit, to participate in the study. The study found that (a) the majority of visitors to the BNF/SWA were Caucasians and the least encountered race was African American; (b) the most common reason for visiting BNF/SWA was for family outings, whereas activities with friends or coworkers were the second most important reason for visiting; (c) hiking (39.6%), camping (29.1%), picnicking (23.3%), and horseback riding (22.5%) were the most popular outdoor recreation activities pursued by visitors. It was concluded that a study aimed at identifying the constraints which negatively impact the use of the BNF/SWA by minorities should be a critical step in the process of trying to diversify the BNF/SWA’s user base. Increased efforts must be made to identify the reasons for the low usage of the BNF/SWA by minorities.
... The framing of the unbuilt outdoors as masculine stabilizes the patriarchal idea that males are "naturally" superior in such environments and therefore may be superior in other environments as well (Kennedy and Russell 2021). For the increasing number of females who challenge this outdated notion through outdoor recreation participation (among other ways), uncomfortable encounters with the male gaze, gender discrimination, and intimidation are very present constraints to females' experience of outdoor recreation (Bustam, Thapa, and Buta 2011;Evans et al. 2020;Gray, Allen-Craig, and Carpenter 2017;Howard and Goldenberg 2020;McAnirlin and Maddox 2021). Given this, it may be that smartphones provide additional security and confidence for females in the outdoors, empowering them to defy traditional gender boundaries. ...
The Pacific Crest Trail (PCT) runs from Mexico to Canada across the western United States. Attempting to complete the entire trail (i.e. thru-hiking) is increasingly popular. We surveyed 560 PCT thru-hikers and found that 97% carried smartphones. This study examined backcountry smartphone use along the PCT. We assessed thru-hikers’ daily smartphone use, different smartphone use behaviours, and days on the trail. Factor analysis categorized the smartphone use behaviours into logical groups: communication, navigation, feeling safe, boredom alleviation, and photography. Regression analysis found that days on the trail, navigation, and boredom alleviation were significant, positive predictors of thru-hikers’ daily smartphone use. Additionally, females were significantly more likely than males to report using smartphones to feel safe. Smartphones are fully integrated into daily life, so outdoor recreation managers should understand how to employ the technology to enhance rather than hinder the quality of outdoor recreation experiences. Implications and future research are discussed.
... Other studies have indicated that fear of certain animals differs based on race/ethnicity, with White participants often exhibiting lower animal-related phobias than other groups (Burnham & Lomax, 2009;Kellert et al., 2017). Additionally, some studies have demonstrated substantial differences in other environmental concepts, such as constraints to outdoor recreation (Bustam et al., 2011;Parker & Green, 2015;Shores et al., 2007) between various racial groups. On the other hand, more recent studies suggest that sex and race may not play as large a role in environmental engagement and development of environmental attitudes as we previously thought, once personal experiences are accounted for (Szczytko, 2017;William, 2017). ...
Human fear and antipathy toward snakes make conservation and management of these species difficult, as negative attitudes are not generally linked to public support. However, our understanding of whether such attitudes are innate or learned is limited. In this study, respondents aged 7–76 years completed an implicit association test (IAT) designed to examine implicit attitudes toward snakes (n = 175). Respondents had negative implicit attitudes toward snakes. Parents had more negative implicit attitudes toward snakes than children, but we detected no effects for sex or race/ethnicity, and the overall ability for demographic variables to predict implicit attitudes was low (R² = 0.035). Approximately, 13% of the overall variance was explained by the random effect for family unit (ρ = 0.132), indicating membership within a given household unit had small effects on the development of implicit biases against snakes. Collectively, these results support the hypothesis that human aversion to snakes is implicit and provide more evidence that aversion may be innate within our biological or cultural memory. Implicit bias training may be critical to mitigate the effects of negative implicit attitudes toward snakes. Although future research is needed to understand socio-demographic correlates of implicit biases against snakes, our results suggest interventions may be crafted without concern about unique responses to snakes across sex and ethnicities.
... Applying the ethnicity hypothesis, Carr and Williams (1993) found signifi ant differences in recreation preferences between White and Hispanic visitors, but even more notable differences within different Hispanic ethnic groups such as Chicanos (with Mexican heritage) and Latinos (with Central American heritage). Other studies have employed similar approaches to characterize the recreation constraints faced by African American (Johnson et al., 2001;Shinew et al., 2004), Asian (Scott et al., 2006), and Latinx populations (Bustam et al., 2011;Tierney et al., 2001;Wilhelm-Stanis et al., 2009). ...
... Collectively, decades of research focused on constraints to outdoor recreation (and, to a lesser extent, winter recreation) has yielded several conclusions. First, racial and ethnic minorities typically face more constraints to leisure than their White counterparts (Bustam et al., 2011;Cordell, 1998;Ghirmire et al., 2014;Johnson et al., 2001). Second, race-based disparities and inequalities can shape the way racial and ethnic minorities experience and negotiate constraints to leisure (Shinew & Floyd, 2005;Stodolska & Floyd, 2015). ...
As current racial and ethnic minority groups make up increasingly larger percentages of the U.S. population, recreation managers seek to understand their recreational needs and preferences. One area has received little attention: the winter recreation participation of non-White individuals (especially Latinxs). In this study, we sought to (1) examine demographic differences in constraints to visiting a conventional winter recreation destination, China Peak Mountain Resort (CPMR); and (2) explore winter recreation site use among demographically diverse populations in various types of public parks around CPMR in Fresno County, CA, including sno-parks (sites that provide snow-cleared parking lots with sanitation facilities and access to snow play areas, cross-country ski and snowmobile trails). Data were gathered “onsite” (n=491) at sno-parks along Highway 168 and “offsite” (n=1318) in communities across the Central Valley. Data from the two sites revealed significant differences in winter recreation constraints and site use patterns among different racial/ethnic and income groups. Racial and ethnic minorities and respondents with lower household income reported high levels of constraints to participation in winter recreation at CPMR. Overall, structural constraints were the most prominent barriers affecting visitation to CPMR. Our findings showed that all respondents were more likely to visit public lands (e.g., sno-parks) for winter recreation than CPMR. Public parks and sno-parks may provide particularly unique and valuable opportunities for Latinx residents and individuals from low-income groups who are historically underrepresented with respect to winter recreation in California’s Central Valley. Overall, our results yield two key conclusions regarding winter recreation: (1) commercial resort managers (e.g., CPMR) should seek ways to minimize existing structural and cultural barriers to visitation, thereby attracting a more diverse clientele; and (2) providers should consider public lands such as sno-parks as key alternatives for diverse residents seeking winter recreation experiences—especially non-White and lowincome populations who rarely visit private mountain resorts.
... Lack of access to quality outdoor recreation opportunities and the relationship between low participation rates of low-income and racial or ethnic minorities is well documented (Shores, Scott, & Floyd, 2007;Taylor, Floyd, Whitt-Glover, & Brooks, 2007;Ussery et al., 2016). For instance, constraints to outdoor recreation have been shown to be higher for females and underrepresented groups (Bustam, Thapa, & Buta, 2011;Wilhelm Stanis, 2009). Perceived constraints to outdoor recreation are heightened for elderly, low-income, minority, or female individuals, and when two or more of these demographic groups are combined, the likelihood of perceiving constraints is intensified (Johnson, Bowker, & Cordell, 2001;Shores, Scott, & Floyd, 2007). ...
... Related to these disparities, minority community members have often been excluded from using and designing park resources (Floyd, Taylor, & Whitt-Glover, 2009;Henderson, 1997;Scott, 2013). This exclusion has stemmed from multiple factors, including park designers' and managers' lack of understanding of different constraints to participation, leisure preferences, sociocultural considerations, and historical racial oppression (Bustam, Thapa, & Buta, 2011;Lee & Scott, 2016;Roberts, 1993;Wilhelm Stanis et al., 2009). As such, minority groups may be less likely to visit certain parks where they perceive social injustices (Byrne, 2012;Krymkowski, Manning, & Valliere, 2014;Sharievska et al., 2010). ...
... Many of these factors act in unison and can have compounding effects on constraints (e.g., low-income elderly women of color are often most constrained, whereas educated young-adult white males can be least constrained; Jun, Kyle, & Mowen, 2009;Shores et al., 2007;Zanon et al., 2013). Numerous studies have found that racial and ethnic minorities experience more constraints compared to non-minorities (Bustam et al., 2011;Gobster, 2002;Metcalf, Burns, & Graefe, 2013;Shores et al., 2007;Wilhelm Stanis, Schneider, & Russell, 2009), whereas others have found that different factors, such as available resources and free time, contribute more to constraints (Jackson, 1994(Jackson, , 2005Scott, 2013). Despite mixed results on the relative importance of certain demographics, race and ethnicity are commonly associated with constraints such as affordability of recreation, distance from parks, lack of transportation to parks, and crime in parks (Bustam et al., 2011;Byrne & Wolch, 2009;Gobster, 2002;Jun et al., 2009;Shinew et al., 2004;Shores et al., 2007;Stodolska & Yi-Kook, 2005;Zanon et al., 2013). ...
... Numerous studies have found that racial and ethnic minorities experience more constraints compared to non-minorities (Bustam et al., 2011;Gobster, 2002;Metcalf, Burns, & Graefe, 2013;Shores et al., 2007;Wilhelm Stanis, Schneider, & Russell, 2009), whereas others have found that different factors, such as available resources and free time, contribute more to constraints (Jackson, 1994(Jackson, , 2005Scott, 2013). Despite mixed results on the relative importance of certain demographics, race and ethnicity are commonly associated with constraints such as affordability of recreation, distance from parks, lack of transportation to parks, and crime in parks (Bustam et al., 2011;Byrne & Wolch, 2009;Gobster, 2002;Jun et al., 2009;Shinew et al., 2004;Shores et al., 2007;Stodolska & Yi-Kook, 2005;Zanon et al., 2013). ...
This article examined constraints to visiting urban parks and natural areas in the Portland, Oregon (USA) metropolitan region, as well as spatial attributes of these constraints. Data were obtained from questionnaires completed by 620 residents. Statistical analysis coupled with geographic information system (GIS) and hot spot analysis determined spatial patterns in constraint groups (least, moderate, most), different dimensions of constraints, and resident characteristics (white majority, racial and ethnic minorities). The northeast area of this region had the highest minority resident clustering, was most constrained in general, and was most constrained by health and lack of recreation partners in particular. Residents in the west and southwest areas were most constrained by limited access and knowledge related to parks. These results inform agency objectives associated with reaching and engaging various populations, including minorities. Findings also contribute to the literature by applying GIS analysis of survey data to understand spatial aspects of constraints.
