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-Red galaxy fraction, fr, as a function of local galaxy density for samples of different luminosities for the two redshift bins.
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We analyse the B-R_c colors of galaxies as functions of luminosity and local galaxy density using a large photometric redshift catalog based on the Red-Sequence Cluster Survey. We select two samples of galaxies with a magnitude limit of M_Rc<-18.5 and redshift ranges of 0.2<z< 0.4 and 0.4<z<0.6 containing \~10^5 galaxies each. We model the color di...
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Context 1
... also repeat the calculation using a sample with a more liberal error criterion, σ z /(1 + z) < 0.4; this pro- duces qualitatively identical results, showing that the in- completeness correction works well. Figure 2 shows the fraction of red galaxies, f r , de- rived from integrating the Gaussian fits, as a function of local density for each magnitude bin for the two red- shift samples. The uncertainty for each f r value is esti- mated by generating 100 Monte-Carlo realizations based on the errors on the parameters of the corresponding two-Gaussian fit. ...
Context 2
... spectra to recover the star formation his- tory. Their Figure 2 shows that low-mass galaxies have a more or less constant star formation rate from z ∼ 1, peaking at z ∼ 0.4 to 0.2. In comparison, the more mas- sive galaxies have their star formation peak much earlier, and show a decline as early as z ∼ 1, and by z∼0.05 the SSFRs for galaxies of different masses are different by a factor of more than 10. ...
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... our high redshift bins with the SDSS results (B04), the evolution of f r also ap- pears to be a function of the local galaxy density: the z∼0.5 sample has a much flatter dependence of f r on local density. In B04's Figure 2 there is a strong local density dependence of f r for galaxies of all luminosities; f r ranges from 0.1 to 0.4 for galaxies of different lumi- nosities in the lowest density sample, and from 0.65 to 0.85 for the highest density samples. By comparison, f r in our two higher redshift bins has a similar range (0.1 to 0.4) for the low density environment, but has values between 0.15 and 0.6 in the densest regions. ...
Context 4
... is, for galaxies of similar masses, the drop in star formation rate occurs successively later for galaxies in less dense environments. The increase of the faint blue galaxy fraction in the high redshift, high den- sity samples can be interpreted as these galaxies having their peak star formation era at a redshift of ∼ 0.3 to 0.2 ( Heavens et al. 2004), followed by a decline, resulting in a high faint red galaxy fraction at z∼0.05 (Figure 2, B04). In the less dense regions, the star formation rate continues to be high to lower redshifts (see, e.g., Gómez et al. 2003), keeping the blue galaxy fraction high. ...
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... Ever since Dressler (1980) observationally discovered the dependence of the morphological types of cluster galaxies on the local densities, numerous observational studies have confirmed the existence of the correlations between the local environmental densities and various physical properties of the galaxies, which include the luminosity, morphological shape, color, star formation rate (SFR), metallicity, and so on (e.g., Haynes et al. 1984;Postman & Geller 1984;Santiago & Strauss 1992;Balogh et al. 1998;Goto et al. 2003;Hogg et al. 2003Hogg et al. , 2004Kauffmann et al. 2004;Tanaka et al. 2004;Blanton et al. 2005;Kuehn & Ryden 2005;Yee et al. 2005;Zehavi et al. 2005;Bernardi et al. 2006;Sol Alonso et al. 2006;Capak et al. 2007;Deng et al. 2007;O'Mill et al. 2008;van der Wel 2008;Bamford et al. 2009;Ideue et al. 2009;Skibba et al. 2009;Tasca et al. 2009;Weinmann et al. 2009). To address the critical issue of what contributed most to establishing this environmental dependence of the galaxy properties, much theoretical and numerical endeavor has been made (e.g., see Abbas & Sheth 2005;Avila-Reese et al. 2005;Christlein & Zabludoff 2005;Cooray 2005;Harker et al. 2006;Lee 2006;Perez et al. 2006;Blanton & Berlind 2007;Maulbetsch et al. 2007;Khochfar & Ostriker 2008;Croft et al. 2009;Kimm et al. 2009;Parry et al. 2009;Vijayaraghavan & Ricker 2013;Tonnesen & Cen 2014;Metuki et al. 2015;Joshi et al. 2017;Lee et al. 2017;Gupta et al. 2018, and references therein). ...
We study the mean tidal coherence of galaxy environments as a function of intrinsic luminosity determined by the absolute r-band magnitude. The tidal coherence of a galaxy environment is estimated as the cosine of the angle between two minor eigenvectors of the tidal field smoothed at the scales of 2 and 30 h ⁻¹ Mpc, respectively, centered on each of the local galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Data Release 10. Creating four luminosity-selected samples of the Sloan galaxies, we control them to have identical density distributions in order to nullify the dominant effect of the local density. The samples containing more luminous wall and field galaxies were found to yield lower mean values of the tidal coherence, which is a trend that turns out to be robust against the variation of the smoothing scales. At a fixed morphology, the same trend is found for the late-type spiral and lenticular galaxies in both of the field and wall environments. The early-type spiral field galaxies show no significant dependence on the tidal coherence, while both of the least and most luminous elliptical wall galaxies are found to dwell in the regions with highest tidal coherence. © 2018. The American Astronomical Society. All rights reserved..
... The nearest neighbor densities are widely used in the literature to characterize the local galaxy environment (Grützbauch et al. 2011b). The number of neighbors to count, n, is still a subject of debate, but many authors would like to use n = 5 (e.g., Goto et al. 2003;Balogh et al. 2004a,b;Yee et al. 2005;Ball et al. 2008;Deng et al. 2008aDeng et al. , 2009aDeng et al. , 2010bDeng 2012). Cooper et al. (2005) demonstrated that the choice of n does not change the resulting densities significantly. ...
The apparent magnitude-limited Main galaxy sample of the Sloan Digital
Sky Survey Data Release 7 is used to investigate the environmental
dependence of u--r, u--g, g--r, r--i and i--z colors. All the five
colors strongly correlate with the local environment: red galaxies tend
to be located in dense regions, while blue galaxies tend to be located
in low density regions. We also note that with increasing of redshift,
the environmental dependence of galaxy colors becomes weaker, especially
in the high redshift region (z between 0.17 and 0.20). This can be
explained accepting that subsamples with high redshifts contain only
luminous and red galaxies.
... The bimodal distribution in optical colours of galaxies is mainly a consequence of the bulk of early-type galaxies forming a tight sequence within the colour-magnitude space, originally termed as the "red-envelope" (Visvanathan & Sandage, 1977;O'Connell, 1988;Ellis, 1988), but now known as the "red-sequence" (RS, Gladders et al., 1998). The RS has been used as a marker in the search of clusters of galaxies in the nearby (e.g., Bower, Lucey & Ellis, 1992a,b;Scodeggio, 2001;López-Cruz et al., 2004, BLE92) and in the distant universe, up to z∼1, using optical multi-band photometry (Aragón-Salamanca et al., 1991, 1993Stanford et al., 1995Stanford et al., , 1998Rakos & Schombert, 1995;Ellis et al., 1997;Bower, Kodama & Terlevich, 1998;van Dokkum et al., 1998;Kodama et al., 1998;Gladders et al., 1998;van Dokkum et al., 2000;Blakeslee et al., 2003;Fritz et al., 2005;Tanaka et al., 2005;Yee et al., 2005;Cassata et al., 2007). Recently, the combination of optical, near-infrared (NIR) and/or mid-infrared (MIR) Spitzer photometry allowed extending the RS technique to detect high-redshift clusters at 1.2 z 2.2 (Wilson et al., 2009;Strazzullo et al., 2010;Demarco et al., 2010;Andreon & Huertas-Company, 2011). ...
We explore the evolution of the Colour-Magnitude Relation (CMR) and
Luminosity Function (LF) at 0.4<z<1.3 from the VIMOS Public Extragalactic
Redshift Survey (VIPERS) using ~45,000 galaxies with precise spectroscopic
redshifts down to i'_AB<22.5 over ~10.32 deg^2 in two fields. From z=0.5 to
z=1.3 the LF and CMR are well defined for different galaxy populations and
M^*_B evolves by ~1.04(1.09)+/-0.06(0.10) mag for the total (red) galaxy
sample. We compare different criteria for selecting early-type galaxies (ETGs):
(1) fixed cut in rest-frame (U-V) colours, (2) evolving cut in (U-V) colours,
(3) rest-frame (NUV-r')-(r'-K) colour selection, and (4) SED classification.
Regardless of the method we measure a consistent evolution of the red-sequence
(RS). Between 0.4<z<1.3 we find a moderate evolution of the RS intercept of
Delta(U-V)=0.28+/-0.14 mag, favouring exponentially declining star formation
(SF) histories with SF truncation at 1.7<=z<=2.3. Together with the rise in the
ETG number density by 0.64 dex since z=1, this suggests a rapid build-up of
massive galaxies (M>10^11 M_sun) and expeditious RS formation over a short
period of ~1.5 Gyr starting before z=1. This is supported by the detection of
ongoing SF in ETGs at 0.9<z<1.0, in contrast with the quiescent red stellar
populations of ETGs at 0.5<z<0.6. There is an increase in the observed CMR
scatter with redshift, two times larger than in galaxy clusters and at variance
with theoretical models. We discuss possible physical mechanisms that support
the observed evolution of the red galaxy population. Our findings point out
that massive galaxies have experienced a sharp SF quenching at z~1 with only
limited additional merging. In contrast, less-massive galaxies experience a mix
of SF truncation and minor mergers which build-up the low- and
intermediate-mass end of the CMR.
... Cooper et al. (2005) argue that the choice of n does not change the resulting densities significantly. In this study, the five neighbor (n = 5) are used, in concordance with many other studies (e.g., Goto et al. 2003;Balogh et al. 2004a,b;Yee et al. 2005;Ball, Loveday, & Brunner 2008;Deng et al. 2008aDeng et al. , 2009aDeng et al. ,b,c, 2010Deng et al. , 2011aDeng et al. ,b, 2012Deng & Zou 2009;Deng 2010Deng , 2012. Deng et al. (2008aDeng et al. ( , 2009c demonstrated that in the volumelimited Main galaxy sample of the SDSS, the local three-dimensional galaxy density and the projected local density 5 (e.g., Goto et al. 2003;Balogh et al. 2004a,b) can produce the same conclusions. ...
Using four volume-limited Main galaxy samples of the Sloan Digital Sky
Survey Data Release 8 (SDSS DR8), we have investigated the environmental
dependences of the SFR, SSFR and stellar mass at fixed luminosity. At
fixed luminosity, we still observe strong environmental dependences of
the SFR, SSFR and stellar mass of galaxies: galaxies in the lowest
density regime preferentially have a higher SFR or SSFR and lower
stellar mass than galaxies in the densest regime. This result suggests
that the limitation or fixation of luminosity does not exert substantial
influence on the environmental dependences of the SFR, SSFR and stellar
mass of galaxies, which further shows that luminosity is not a
fundamental parameter in correlations between galaxy properties and the
environment.
... However, the distribution of log M star for the full Field sample is inconsistent [Kolmogorov-Smirnov (KS) test probability p < 0.001] with that of the Virgo sample. As both star formation and nuclear activity are strong functions of stellar mass as well as environment (e.g., Treu et al. 2005a;Yee et al. 2005), we control the Field-versus-Virgo comparison for M star as described next. ...
We use the AMUSE-Virgo and AMUSE-Field surveys for nuclear X-ray emission in early-type galaxies to conduct a controlled comparison of low-level supermassive black hole activity within cluster and field spheroids. While both the Virgo and the Field samples feature highly sub-Eddington X-ray luminosities (L
X/L
Edd between ~10–8 and 10–4), we find that after accounting for the influence of host galaxy stellar mass, the field early-type galaxies tend toward marginally greater (0.38 ± 0.14 dex) nuclear X-ray luminosities, at a given black hole mass, than their cluster counterparts. This trend is qualitatively consistent with the field black holes having access to a greater reservoir of fuel, plausibly in the form of cold gas located near the nucleus. We are able to rule out at high confidence the alternative of enhanced X-ray activity within clusters. Presuming nuclear X-ray emission correlates with the total energy and momentum output of these weakly accreting black holes, this indicates that low-level active galactic nucleus feedback is not generally stronger within typical cluster galaxies than in the field. These results confirm that for most cluster early-type galaxies (i.e., excluding brightest cluster galaxies) direct environmental effects, such as gas stripping, are more relevant in quenching star formation.
... We certainly do not see a large population of 'young' or blue ETGs in intermediate-redshift clusters, at least at moderate-to-high ETG masses, as judged from studies of the evolution of galaxy colours (e.g., Butcher & Oemler 1978Ellis et al. 1997;Stanford, Eisenhardt, & Dickinson 1998), the Fundamental Plane (e.g., van Dokkum & Franx 1996;van Dokkum et al. 1998van Dokkum et al. , 1999van der Wel et al. 2004;Treu et al. 2005), mass-to-light ratios (van der Marel & van Dokkum 2007), and absorption-line strengths (Jørgensen et al. 2005;Kelson et al. 2006). The majority of the massive galaxies in intermediateredshift clusters are quite red (e.g., Butcher & Oemler 1978Ellis et al. 1997;Yee et al. 2005), with very few, if any, blue galaxies among the bright (L > 2L * ) population. We therefore consider such extreme quenching models ruled out. ...
We present stellar population parameters of twelve early-type galaxies (ETGs) in the Coma Cluster based on spectra obtained using the Low Resolution Imaging Spectrograph on the Keck II Telescope. Our data allow us to examine in detail the zero-point and scatter in their stellar population properties. Our ETGs have SSP-equivalent ages of on average 5-8 Gyr with the models used here, with the oldest galaxies having ages of ~10 Gyr old. This average age is identical to the mean age of field ETGs. Our ETGs span a large range in velocity dispersion but are consistent with being drawn from a population with a single age. Specifically, ten of the twelve ETGs are consistent within their formal errors of having the same age, 5.2+/-0.2 Gyr, over a factor of more than 750 in mass. We therefore find no evidence for downsizing of the stellar populations of ETGs in the core of the Coma Cluster. We suggest that Coma Cluster ETGs may have formed the majority of their mass at high redshifts but suffered small but detectable star formation events at z~0.1-0.3. Previous detections of 'downsizing' from stellar populations of local ETGs may not reflect the same downsizing seen in lookback studies of RSGs, as the young ages of the local ETGs represent only a small fraction of their total masses. (abridged) Comment: 49 pages, 20 figures (19 EPS, 1 JPEG). MNRAS, in press. For version with full resolution of Fig. 1 see http://www.astro.rug.nl/~sctrager/coma.pdf; for Table 2, see http://www.astro.rug.nl/~sctrager/coma_table2.pdf; for Table B3, see http://www.astro.rug.nl/~sctrager/coma_tableB3.pdf
... This suggests that at higher redshift, the fraction of red galaxies as a function of density should display a shallower slope than at low redshift. This is observed by Yee et al. (2005), as for galaxies with M r < −19.5, the slope in this relationship is on average smaller for galaxies with 0.4 < z < 0.6 than for galaxies with 0.2 < z < 0.4. While these redshift ranges are different than the ones we employ, it confirms that the fraction of red galaxies versus density relationship shows a decrease in slope as the redshift increases (for M r < −19.5). ...
We present estimates of the N-point galaxy, area-averaged, angular correlation functions $\bar{\omega}_{N}$($\theta$) for $N$ = 2,...,7 for galaxies from the fifth data release of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. Our parent sample is selected from galaxies with $18 \leq r < 21$, and is the largest ever used to study higher-order correlations. We subdivide this parent sample into two volume limited samples using photometric redshifts, and these two samples are further subdivided by magnitude, redshift, and color (producing early- and late-type galaxy samples) to determine the dependence of $\bar{\omega}_{N}$($\theta$) on luminosity, redshift, and galaxy-type. We measure $\bar{\omega}_{N}$($\theta$) using oversampling techniques and use them to calculate the projected, $s_{N}$. Using models derived from theoretical power-spectra and perturbation theory, we measure the bias parameters $b_1$ and $c_2$, finding that the large differences in both bias parameters ($b_1$ and $c_2$) between early- and late-type galaxies are robust against changes in redshift, luminosity, and $\sigma_8$, and that both terms are consistently smaller for late-type galaxies. By directly comparing their higher-order correlation measurements, we find large differences in the clustering of late-type galaxies at redshifts lower than 0.3 and those at redshifts higher than 0.3, both at large scales ($c_2$ is larger by $\sim0.5$ at $z > 0.3$) and small scales (large amplitudes are measured at small scales only for $z > 0.3$, suggesting much more merger driven star formation at $z > 0.3$). Finally, our measurements of $c_2$ suggest both that $\sigma_8 < 0.8$ and $c_2$ is negative. Comment: 46 pages, 19 figures, Accepted to ApJ
... More recent observational work has demonstrated however that this evolution depends strongly on both galaxy stellar mass, and on large-scale environment (e.g. Juneau et al. 2005;Yee et al. 2005;Nuijten et al. 2005;Cooper et al. 2006;Bell et al. 2005;Cucciati et al. 2006). Modeling these trends accurately has perhaps proved more of a challenge, and we have consequently learned a considerable amount about the nature of the star formation and feedback processes that control the evolution of the baryons in the Universe. ...
... Both of these surveys have shown that a correlation between the galaxy colour distribution and the local environment persists out to z ∼ 1, and that the strength of this correlation evolves. This confirms, with greater significance, trends that had been observed earlier in photometric redshift surveys (Yee et al. 2005;Nuijten et al. 2005). In particular, between z = 1 and z = 2 the correlation becomes considerably weaker, and may even disappear. ...
In this review I summarize recent observational efforts to determine how the evolution of galaxy colours and star formation rates depends on their stellar mass and their environment. These observations are compared with the latest theoretical models. Although a consistent picture of galaxy formation is beginning to emerge, in which energetic feedback mechanisms play an important role, some interesting puzzles remain, especially regarding the physical processes at work in dense environments.
... The homogeneous properties of the red population, for example, the tight CMR found in all rich clusters, has always argued strongly for a monolithic collapse scenario (Partridge & Peebles 1967, Larson 1975). Yet, the decrease in age with galaxy density (radial changes) found in this study is precisely the effect predicted by most hierarchical formation models (Yee et al. 2005, Conselice 2006) and, more importantly, an increase in metallicity with galaxy mass in conjunction with a decreasing duration of initial star formation with galaxy mass is in direct contradiction of the classic galactic wind model of galaxy formation. Under a normal wind model (see Matteucci 2004), the efficiency of star formation is a decreasing function of galactic mass. ...
We present age and metallicities determinations based on narrow band continuum colors for the galaxies in the rich clusters A1185 and Coma. Using a new technique to extract luminosity-weighted age and [Fe/H] values for non-star-forming galaxies, we find that both clusters have two separate populations based on these parameters. One population is old ($\tau >$ 11 Gyrs) with a distinct mass-metallicity relation. The second population is slightly younger ($\tau \approx$ 9 Gyrs) with lower metallicities and lower stellar masses. We find detectable correlations between age and galaxy mass in both populations such that older galaxies are more massive and have higher mean metallicities, confirming previous work with line indices for the same type of galaxies in other clusters (Kelson et al 2006, Thomas et al 2005). Our results imply shorter durations for higher mass galaxies, in contradiction to the predictions of classic galactic wind models. Since we also find a clear mass-metallicity relation for these galaxies, then we conclude that star formation was more efficient for higher mass galaxies, a scenario described under the inverse wind models (Matteucci 1994). With respect to cluster environmental effects, we find there is a significant correlation between galaxy mean age and distance from the cluster center, such that older galaxies inhabit the core. This relationship would nominally support hierarchical scenarios of galaxy formation (younger age in lower density regions); however, environmental effects probably have larger signature in the sample and present-day galaxies are remnants from an epoch of quenching of initial star formation, which would result in the same age gradients.
... Other studies have analysed the average density as a function of galaxy property (Hogg et al. 2003;Blanton et al. 2005a), the clustering properties of galaxies (Wild et al. 2005;Zehavi et al. 2005;Li et al. 2006), and the relationship between galaxies and dark matter derived from galaxy-galaxy weak lensing (Gray et al. 2004;Mandelbaum et al. 2006). The data available for z < 0.2 is the most comprehensive, e.g., from SDSS and 2dFGRS data, but gains have been made at higher redshift (Wilman et al. 2005;Yee et al. 2005;Cooper et al. 2006;Ilbert et al. 2006). While local density measurements illuminate various environmental trends in the data, galaxies in semi-analytical models are primarily associated with dark-matter halos. ...
We analyse a z<0.1 galaxy sample from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey focusing on the variation of the galaxy colour bimodality with stellar mass and projected neighbour density Sigma, and on measurements of the galaxy stellar mass functions. The characteristic mass increases with environmental density from about 10^10.6 Msun to 10^10.9 Msun (Kroupa IMF, H_0=70) for Sigma in the range 0.1--10 per Mpc^2. The galaxy population naturally divides into a red and blue sequence with the locus of the sequences in colour-mass and colour-concentration index not varying strongly with environment. The fraction of galaxies on the red sequence is determined in bins of 0.2 in log Sigma and log mass (12 x 13 bins). The red fraction f_r generally increases continuously in both Sigma and mass such that there is a unified relation: f_r = F(Sigma,mass). Two simple functions are proposed which provide good fits to the data. These data are compared with analogous quantities in semi-analytical models based on the Millennium N-body simulation: the Bower et al. (2006) and Croton et al. (2006) models that incorporate AGN feedback. Both models predict a strong dependence of the red fraction on stellar mass and environment that is qualitatively similar to the observations. However, a quantitative comparison shows that the Bower et al. model is a significantly better match; this appears to be due to the different treatment of feedback in central galaxies. Comment: 19 pages, 17 figures; accepted by MNRAS, minor changes
