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![Rate of mass loss of different types of plastics due to pyrolysis. PVC is the only plastic type that has two peaks. The average decomposition temperature is 450 °C as found by López et al. [79].](profile/Hussam-Jouhara/publication/321306332/figure/fig10/AS:668811707555851@1536468545940/Rate-of-mass-loss-of-different-types-of-plastics-due-to-pyrolysis-PVC-is-the-only.jpg)
Rate of mass loss of different types of plastics due to pyrolysis. PVC is the only plastic type that has two peaks. The average decomposition temperature is 450 °C as found by López et al. [79].
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![Table 6 Proximate analysis of various food materials [33,53,54].](profile/Hussam-Jouhara/publication/321306332/figure/tbl2/AS:668811711770626@1536468546382/Proximate-analysis-of-various-food-materials-33-53-54_Q320.jpg)
This article reports the state of the art of the characteristics of products derived from the pyrolysis of municipal solid waste. The by-products which arise at more elevated temperatures are discussed so that the outcomes of low temperature pyrolysis may be put into context. Our throwaway society is a globally growing issue, the continued discardi...
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... higher treatment temperature is favoured during pyrolysis, as the degradation of plastic starts at 400 °C and it is fully pyrolyzed at 500 °C [79]. The degradation can be registered by looking at the mass loss. López et al. [79] conducted research into pyrolysis of different kinds of plastics. The results in terms of mass loss rate can be seen in Fig. 5. As seen in the figure, every plastic (except for PVC) has one peak. This peak shows the degradation temperature and speed per type of plastic. The first PVC peak is explained by the evaporation of HCl, the second peak is the decomposition of the remaining polyene [79]. During the full degradation of plastics, bio- oil and syngas are ...
Citations
... Traditionally, plastic waste is burned to provide heat, and the steam produced by the boiling water powers turbine blades to produce energy for the local grids. The incineration efficiency, however, is just about 10% (Jouhara et al., 2018). Additionally, burning plastic waste releases a lot of toxic substances like dioxins and fly ash as well as greenhouse gases like CO 2 , CO, NOx, and SOx, which increase the effects of climate change and endanger human health (Verma, 2016). ...
... Pyrolysis produces energy from waste biomass in the form of solid and liquid biochar and synthetic gas [26]. This thermal decomposition process takes place in the absence of oxygen. ...
... In slow pyrolysis, however, the bio-oil content is much lower. The operating parameters can be varied to obtain the desired range of products, which depends on the feedstock selected [26]. ...
This study examines the considerable volume of food waste generated annually in Slovenia, which amounted to over 143,000 tons in 2020. The analysis shows that 40% of food waste consists of edible parts, highlighting the potential for reduction through increased consumer awareness and attitudes towards food consumption. The study shows that the consumption phase contributes the most to waste food (46%), followed by primary production (25%) and processing/manufacture (24%). The study addresses various thermodynamic processes, in particular, thermal conversion methods, such as torrefaction pyrolysis and hydrothermal carbonization, which optimize energy potential by reducing the atomic ratio (H/C) and (O/C), thereby increasing calorific value and facilitating the production of solid fuels. The main results show the effectiveness of torrefaction, pyrolysis and hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) in increasing the energy potential of food waste.
... Co-pyrolysis of multiple feedstocks, including biomass, coal, plastics, tires, and sludge, has gained attention as an alternative approach for enhancing pyrolysis outputs [27]. Co-pyrolysis produces a unique product with combined properties, and the synergistic effect between different feedstocks significantly influences the process. ...
... Table 2. Slow and fast pyrolysis for biomass. [24] ; [26]; [27]. ...
This mini-review explores the perspective of biochar material production using the co-pyrolysis approach, which involves the thermal decomposition of biomass and other carbonaceous materials in the absence of oxygen at low temperatures (300-500°C). The study investigates the co-pyrolysis of biomass with different materials such as plastics, tires, municipal solid waste, and other organic waste to produce a high biochar yield. The review focuses on the benefits of co-pyrolysis, including higher yield and better quality of biochar, as well as reduced environmental impact by using different waste materials as feedstock. The review also highlights co-pyrolysis challenges, such as process optimization, feedstock preparation, and product characterization. The study concludes that co-pyrolysis of biomass with different materials can be a promising approach for producing high-quality biochar with multiple applications. However, more research is needed to optimize the co-pyrolysis process and evaluate the economic feasibility of biochar production using a computation approach.
... The pyrolysis process can be divided into three main categories: Slow pyrolysis, intermediate pyrolysis, and fast pyrolysis. These processes have different reaction temperatures, heating rates, feedstock sizes and residence times (Jouhara et al., 2018). The information regarding each process is presented in Table 1. ...
... In the realm of technology, conventional technology roadmaps are visual tools that illustrate and convey connections between Table 1 Summary of the different types of pyrolysis processes and their operating parameters. Retrieved from (Jouhara et al., 2018 markets, products, technologies, and resources over time. These roadmaps help predict the future direction of technological development and assist in decision-making (Amer and Daim, 2010;Matani et al., 2019). ...
Rural fires are currently one of the main global disasters, and Portugal is among the countries that have suffered from them for decades. These fires pose economic, environmental, and social threats to the country. A primary cause of rural fires is the burning of biomass to clear agroforestry residues. Thus, combating rural fires requires more effective forest management, particularly the removal of forest residues that serve as fuel. These residues, also known as biomass, have significant potential for energy production and biofuel use. This paper proposes a model that integrates the PROMETHEE decision-making method with the roadmapping. This proposed model includes 7 steps, including the planning of the roadmap, the definition of the decision problem, gathering information and building the roadmap. The proposed model was applied to develop a roadmap proposal for the recovery of surplus agroforestry biomass in Portugal, identifying the most emerging conversion technologies in the national context. With the roadmap developed, it was possible to understand that the recovery of surplus agroforestry biomass in Portugal involves several sectors. The energy sector is one of those that can benefit from the recovery of leftover agroforestry biomass, both from the point of view of carbon neutrality and energy independence. Forestry management is another of the great advantages of recovering leftover forestry biomass and, consequently, reducing the number of fires. In the context of recovery, combustion is the most widely used technology for producing energy or heat. The technology identified as most emerging in the upcoming years is gasification. Investment in scientific research is essential for the success of this sector, as is the development of public incentive policies and more engagement from all stakeholders. This paper conclude that valorizing agroforestry residues can reduce rural fire risks while promoting energy independence, sustainable regional development, and innovation in Portugal.
... In general terms, this waste presents high volatile and very low ash contents. This suggests a high suitability of plastics for pyrolysis [28], with high liquid and gas yields, a low quantity of char (due to the low fixed carbon content), and no need of drying before treatment (due to the low humidity content). When the composition of single plastics is compared with real domestic waste, it can be observed that the residual carbon and ashes of the latter increase with respect to most of the single materials, which indicates that domestic waste is a more complex feedstock which can contain additional compounds in its chemical structure. ...
Conventional mechanical recycling technologies cannot recycle all types and amounts of generated plastic waste. Pyrolysis can convert these municipal mixed plastic streams into products with significant calorific value, which are likely to be used as energy sources. The present work describes a technology used to expand the portfolio of technical approaches to drive plastics circularity, i.e., thermochemical recycling. A base case scenario considered a capacity of 1.000 kg/h of municipal plastic waste, consisting of a mixture of polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), and plastic associated with paper, which were converted into non-condensable gases, oil, and char through a pyrogasification system. Based on mass and energy balances and experimental data from the literature, a total of 199.4 kg (48 MJ/kg) of liquid fuel and 832.85 kg (16 MJ/kg) of gas could be obtained with no need for external heating sources. The thermal requirement for the pyrolysis of 1.000 kg of municipal plastic waste (1.316 MJ) was supplied by the gasification of a fraction of the produced pyrolysis oil and gases. This feasibility analysis confirmed the technical adequacy of the proposed technology, which that will be further complemented by a technoeconomic study of the proposed solution.
... Once cremating dangerous MSWs with halogenated organic matter content, the heat requests suddenly rise to 1100 C [41]. A low temperature pyrolysis treatment has also been found to be Industrial solid ashes generation operative in eliminating and curing in excess of 95% of the chlorine in the feed of MSW [42]. Fig. 1.5 also illustrates a typical MSW incineration plant. ...
... The choice of the two pyrolysis temperatures biochars was based on the well-recognized chemical changes occurring in plant-derived biomass. The literature shows that the pyrolysis temperature of~300 • C results in the decomposition of hemicellulose and cellulose, while the temperature of~600 • C also covers the decomposition of lignin [41,42]. Moreover, most carboxyl and phenolic groups are degraded, and the product is enriched with mineral parts and more thermally resistant aromatic structures under higher pyrolysis temperatures [43,44]. ...
... A reduction in surface charge and cation exchange capacity with biochar preparation temperature increase is a common observation, which can be explained by a decrease in acidic surface groups [44]. Quite low Q values for BC300 may result from partial degradation of peat biomass during pyrolysis, which at 300 • C is mostly related to the degradation of hemicellulose and partly to cellulose [41]. Under this temperature, some parts of humic substances, especially fulvic acids and other volatile compounds, can also be degraded resulting in surface charge reduction [43]. ...
Knowledge of the effects of different organic species on soil structure and strength is gained mostly from experiments on natural soils amended with organic substances of various particle sizes, pH, ionic composition, and inorganic impurities. It greatly diversifies the experimental results and shadows individual effects of organic amendments. Therefore, to look for a clearer view, we examined the impact of HCl-washed clay-size organic species: peat, humic acids, residue after humic acid extraction, and two biochars, all derived from the same peat and having similar particles, on the structure and strength of artificial soil silt aggregates using mercury intrusion porosimetry, bulk density measurements, SEM, and uniaxial compression. Bulk density increased due to humic acid addition and decreased for the other amendments. The total pore volumes behaved oppositely. All organic substances except humic acid decreased the pore surface fractal dimension, indicating a smoothening of the pore surface. Humic acid appeared to occupy mostly the spaces between the silt grains skeleton, while the other species were also located upon silt grains. The latter effect was most evident for 600 °C heated biochar. Humic acid, peat, and the residue after humic acid extraction improved mechanical stability, whereas both biochars weakened the aggregates, which means that bulk density plays a smaller role in the mechanical stability of granular materials, as it is usually considered. A new equation relating maximum stress and the amount of the organic additives was proposed.
... In slow pyrolysis, the typical source of heating energy in the pyrolysis chamber is an external source that may be provided from electrical energy sources, burning of the syngas formed during the thermal decomposition (self-sustaining), or external direct burning of the biomass feedstock (Ronsse et al. 2013). The common pyrolysis reactors for biochar production are fixed bed reactors, batch reactors, semi-reactors, plasma reactors, rotary kilns, auger reactors, fluidized bed reactors, microwave-assisted reactors, traditional reactors, and solar reactors (Zaman et al. 2017;El-Gamal et al. 2017;Jouhara et al. 2018;Lewandowski et al. 2019). A solar radiation collector is a unique option for producing biofuel and biochar due to its renewable and costless nature (Chintala et al. 2017). ...
The quality and properties of biochar are generally influenced by the nature of the raw materials and pyrolysis techniques. To assess the quality of sesame biochar production, a disc chamber reactor set on a solar parabolic dish concentrator was proposed as a modified slow pyrolysis technique. To evaluate the physicochemical characterizations of the produced biochar, two pyrolysis settings were used: 470 °C for 1 h (T1) and 440 °C for 2 h (T2) to produce biochar from sesame stalk feedstock (SS) using the proposed solar disk chamber reactor. Ash content, mass fraction of elements (C, H, and O%), pH, surface area, zeta potential, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and scanning electron microscope (SEM) were investigated. The results showed that the mass of T1 biochar decreased by 5% when compared to T2, while ash content, pH, fixed carbon, and volatile gases for both biochars were relatively close. The H/C and O/C molar ratios were below 1.00 and 0.4, respectively, indicating a loss of degradable polar contents and the formation of aromatic compounds. The surface area of T2 biochar was three times the surface area of T1, with the opposite trend in mean pore diameter. Two biochars showed the same FTIR peaks and SEM data, with small differences in their characteristics, demonstrating that pyrolysis time and temperature had a tight relationship. Both biochars showed approximately similar properties. The reactor’s efficiency is mainly affected by solar energy and atmospheric conditions during operation, which influence the average surface temperature. In Egypt, climatic conditions would be more favorable in the summer to improve the efficiency of parabolic solar dish concentrators for producing high-quality biochar.
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... However, co-pyrolysis produces fewer nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides due to the inert environment in which the process takes place. This results in better quality and yield in the solid biochar and bio-oil processes [48]. ...
This study explores the pyrolysis of disposable face masks to produce chemicals suitable for use as fuel, addressing the environmental concern posed by single-use face masks. Co-pyrolysis of biomass with face mask plastic waste offers a promising solution. The research focuses on the co-pyrolysis of biomass and face masks, aiming to characterise the properties for analysis and optimisation. Selected agricultural biomass and face mask plastic waste were subjected to temperatures from 250 °C to 400 °C for co-pyrolysis. Slow pyrolysis was chosen because face masks cannot be converted into useful bioproducts at temperatures exceeding 400 °C. The samples were tested in four different ratios and the study was conducted under inert conditions to ensure analysis accuracy and reliability. The results indicate that face masks exhibit a remarkable calorific value of 9310 kcal/kg. Face masks show a two-fold increase in calorific value compared with biomass alone. Additionally, the low moisture content of face masks (0.10%) reduces the heating value needed to remove moisture, enhancing their combustion efficiency. This study demonstrates the potential of co-pyrolysis with face masks as a means of generating valuable chemicals for fuel production, contributing to environmental sustainability.
... IP experiments were performed according to designed parameter interaction. Type and amount of each response are reported in Table 3. Biochar yield was 26-48% which was within the range of IP process of 25-48% [41][42][43]. The produced biochar had heating value of 26-31 MJ/kg which was in the range IP process biochar of 25-32 MJ/kg but high compared to activated carbon of 18-23 MJ/kg reported in literature [44]. ...
... Heating values were 18-29 MJ/kg which is within a range of IP OP of 19-28 MJ/kg [61,62] but less than gasoline and diesel of 44-46 MJ/kg [58], higher than fast pyrolysis of 19-26 MJ/kg [63]. Yield of gas was 13-31% that can be compared to IP results of 16-30% [41,46]. ...
Cashew nut shells (CNS) are an underutilized agricultural residue generated in large quantities. The study aimed at modeling and optimizing of intermediate pyrolysis (IP) process using response surface methodology of Box-Bohnken method (RSM-BB). Batch experiments were conducted in a fixed-bed reactor to pyrolyze CNS at various particle sizes (1–10 mm), residence times (20–60 min), heating rates (1–10 °C/min), and temperatures (400–600 °C). Ten responses were modeled and optimized to co-produce adsorption carbon and OP as fuel. Co-production occurred at 1–1.7-mm particle size, 22-min residence time, 2.03 °C/min heating rate, and 470 °C temperature. The above optimal parameters gave the yields of biochar, bio-oil, OP, and gas to be 36.52%, 40.9%, 27.8%, and 22.6%, respectively. The analysis of OP revealed that it exhibited pH of 4.65, moisture content of 2.68%, heating value of 26.7 MJ/kg, and density of 1.09 g/cc which were not in the range of values of fossil diesel. Adsorption biochar produced had gold adsorption capacity of 1.86 mgAu/g which was lower than that commercial activated carbon (3–15 mgAu/g). The study demonstrated that IP has potential for valorizing CNS into value-added biochar and OP.
