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An identification key to psychoactive bluing Psilocybe species growing on woody debris in Central Europe is presented. It is mainly based on microcharacters and includes 7 taxa (6 species and 1 variety) of the stirpes Serbica and Cyanescens (former "Psilocybe cyanescens complex"). Micro-, macroscopical, ecological and phenological characters and di...
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Citations
... Commentaire : il s'agit d'un taxon bleuissant de la section Caerulescentes à spores particulièrement grandes, (12,6)12,7-15,0(16,1) x (6,3)6,6-7,4(7,5) µm sur notre récolte, appartenant au complexe serbica/bohemica/moravica, essentiellement étudié sur la base de récoltes d'Europe centrale (Borovička, 2008 ;Noordeloos, 2011), complexe apparemment inconnu en Europe occidentale à ce jour. Schild (Gomphaceae) Fig. 17 , Pinède de Lude, 9.X.2009, leg. ...
Faisant suite à un travail d'inventaire qui s'est étalé sur treize années en région Midi-Pyrénées, notamment dans le cadre institutionnel d'un Conservatoire botanique national, nous présentons ici un certain nombre d'observations pour la plupart inédites. Ces données concernent 8 taxons nouveaux pour la science, 47 taxons nouveaux pour la France, 287 taxons nouveaux pour la région Midi-Pyrénées, ainsi que 56 taxons qui avaient déjà été mentionnés dans la région, mais dont les données présentent un intérêt particulier. Pour chacun d'entre eux sont fournies les localités et dates de récoltes, des données écologiques et les références d'herbier disponibles. Pour un certain nombre, un commentaire d'ordre chorologique, écologique ou taxonomique est ajouté. Des photographies de récoltes, la plupart in situ, de 52 taxons rarement illustrés sont publiées. Abstract.-Following a thirteen year long period of survey in the Midi-Pyrénées southwestern region of France, especially in the institutional framework of a National Botanical Conservatory, we present a number of mostly unpublished observations. These data refer to eight taxa new to science, 47 new to France, 287 new to the Midi-Pyrénées region and 56 taxa that had already been reported from the region, but of particular interest. For each of them, are provided localities and dates of observation, ecological data and herbarium references. For some, chorological, ecological or taxonomic observations are added. Pictures of rarely illustrated taxa, mostly in situ, are published for 52 of them.
... As recently demonstrated in Psilocybe cubensis, the enzymes laccase and phosphatase degrade PSB and initiate the bluing reaction [30]. The surface of the flesh and fruiting body of psychotropic mushrooms typically turns blue or blue-green when bruised or spontaneously [31,32]. Currently, our knowledge of the content of PSB and its derivates in the fruiting bodies of psychotropic mushrooms is insufficient. ...
... Psilocybe cyanescens is known as the "Wavy cap" on the Pacific Coast of the USA and is probably the best-known wood-rotting species growing in the USA. This mushroom is not indigenous to Europe where it was introduced in the 20th century [31]. P. cyanescens is known for its high BA, PS, and PSB concentrations [3,41,45,52]. ...
... The Psilocybe serbica complex contains several taxa formerly classified at the species level [31]. However, phylogenetic analysis based on three molecular markers did not prove a significant difference between P. serbica, P. bohemica, P. arcana, P. moravica, and P. moravica var. ...
Since not only psilocybin (PSB) but also PSB-containing mushrooms are used for psychedelic therapy and microdosing, it is necessary to know their concentration variability in wild-grown mushrooms. This article aimed to determine the PSB, psilocin (PS), baeocystin (BA), norbaeocystin (NB), and aeruginascin (AE) concentrations in a large sample set of mushrooms belonging to genera previously reported to contain psychotropic tryptamines. Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry was used to quantify tryptamine alkaloids in the mushroom samples. Most mushroom collections were documented by fungarium specimens and/or ITS rDNA/LSU/EF1-α sequencing. Concentrations of five tryptamine alkaloids were determined in a large sample set of 226 fruiting bodies of 82 individual collections from seven mushroom genera. For many mushroom species, concentrations of BA, NB, and AE are reported for the first time. The highest PSB/PS concentrations were found in Psilocybe species, but no tryptamines were detected in the P. fuscofulva and P. fimetaria collections. The tryptamine concentrations in mushrooms are extremely variable, representing a problem for mushroom consumers due to the apparent risk of overdose. The varied cocktail of tryptamines in wild mushrooms could influence the medicinal effect compared to therapy with chemically pure PSB, posing a serious problem for data interpretation.
... These resources are not always available or difficult to find for members of the public or others studying these mushrooms, such as law enforcement officers and medical researchers. Although available studies include increasingly more detailed descriptions of species, there is currently no up to date monograph or guide (Høiland, 1978;Guzmán et al., 2004Guzmán et al., , 2016Borovička, 2008;Ramírez-Cruz et al., 2013a;Cortés-Pérez et al., 2021). ...
Psilocybin and psilocin, two psychoactive components found in "magic mushrooms," have therapeutic potential in a number of mental health disorders without the addictiveness and overdose risks found in other mind-altering drugs, such as cocaine, methamphetamines and alcohol. Psychedelic mushrooms occur naturally, are wide distributed and easily accessible. The need for reviews and comprehensive field guides is urgent due to the recent surge of research into psychedelic mushrooms along with public interest. Psilocybin and psilocin are recorded in mushroom species of Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus, and Gymnopilus. This review discusses species identification, taxonomy and classification, available DNA sequence data and psychedelic species in Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus, and Gymnopilus, as well as similar looking genera that could be harmful.
... Specimens have been identified using the following general keys and atlases: Funga Nordica [31], Nordic Macromycetes [32][33][34], Flora Agaricina Neerlandica [35][36][37][38][39][40], Röhrlinge und Blätterpilze in Europa [41], Die Nichtblätterpilze, Gallertpilze und Bauchpilze [42], Fungi of Switzerland [43][44][45][46][47][48], Pilzkompendium [49][50][51][52][53][54][55][56], and Microfungi on land plants [57]. The following monographs and taxonomic papers have been used: Agaricus [58,59], Aleuria and Melastiza [60], Amanita [61,62], Conocybe and Pholiotina [63], Cortinarius [64][65][66], Crepidotus [67], Entoloma [68,69], Galerina [70][71][72], Geastrum [73,74], Gymnopilus [75], Hebeloma [76], Helvella [77], Hemimycena and Xeromphalina [78], Hygrophorus and Hygrocybe [79][80][81], Hypocrea [82,83], Inocybe [84][85][86][87][88], Lactarius [89,90], Lentinellus [91], Mycena [92][93][94], Otidea [95], Peziza [96], Ramaria [97], Russula [98][99][100][101], Scutellinia [102], Tricholoma [103], Boletales [104][105][106], Corticiaceae [107], Geoglossaceae [108][109][110][111][112], Strophariaceae [113][114][115], Polyporaceae [116,117], clavarioid fungi [118,119], jelly fungi [120,121], marasmioid fungi [122], hypogeous fungi [123], and gasteromycetes [73]. Ascomycota have been also determined based on the keys, iconography, and description provided in a DVD edition by Baral [124]. ...
The paper presents the results of several years of mycological studies carried out in Poland, in the Western Sudety Mountains (the Karkonosze, Kaczawskie, Izera, and Rudawy Janowickie mountains), Western Sudety Foothills (the Izerskie and Kaczawskie Foothills), and adjacent regions, such as the Jelenia Góra Valley, Lubawska Gate, and Sudety Foreland (the Niemczańsko-Strzelińskie Hills). During the study, the presence of 985 fungal taxa (species, varieties, and forms) was recorded; of these, 66 had hitherto not been observed in Poland.
... Some Psilocybe species seem to have been introduced to Europe via human activity, as suggested by Borovička (2008) and Noordeloos (2010). Nevertheless , as mentioned above, others are only known to exist in Africa or Europe (Borovička 2008; Gartz et al. 1995). This strongly suggests they originally evolved there. ...
On the Origin of the Genus
Psilocybe
and Its Potential Ritual Use in Ancient Africa and Europe. The role of altered states of consciousness in the production of geometric and figurative art by prehistoric cultures in Africa and Europe has been hotly debated. Helvenston and Bahn have tried to refute the most famous hypothesis, Lewis-Williams’ neuropsychological model, by claiming that appropriate visual hallucinations required the ingestion of LSD, psilocybin, or mescaline, while arguing that none of these compounds were available to the cultures in question. We present here mycological arguments that tell another story. A prehistoric worldwide distribution of the mushroom genus Psilocybe, and therefore of psilocybin, is supported by the existence of endemic species in America, Africa, and Europe, the disjunct distribution of sister species, and the possibility of long-distance spore dispersal. It is more difficult to point to instances of actual prehistoric ritual use in Africa and Europe, but there are a growing number of suggestive findings.
... The genus of Psilocybe mushrooms includes more than 150 hallucinogenic species throughout the world (Guzma´n, 2009), while new species and indications of ancient ritual usage continue to be discovered. And although some species were introduced to Europe, others are known only from there (Borovicˇka, 2008), which suggests they evolved in Europe. More generally, many psychoactive compounds found in plants closely resemble mammalian neurotransmitters, which has been interpreted as the result of a co-evolutionary relationship of millions of years (Sullivan & Hagen, 2002). ...
Three kinds of hallucinations have repeatedly been identified in the literature on altered states of consciousness (ASCs): visions of (1) geometric forms, (2) figures and objects, and (3) complete scenes. Lewis-Williams' neuropsychological model draws on these reports to gain insights into the minds of Paleolithic people, on the basis of shared neurobiology and given comparative ethnographic data on ritualized ASCs. Helvenston has long rejected this model because in many ASCs hallucinations do not always adhere to a strict 1-2-3 sequence, because they do not always feature animals, and because people do not always lose their critical faculties. She is right, but she is attacking a straw man because these criteria are her own. Helvenston's claims about the effects of psychoactive compounds and sensory deprivation are also questionable. It remains an open question how our Turing pattern model relates to more figurative forms of hallucinations.
... The basidiospore size variation in this group of taxa is distinctly wider than admitted by the current anatomic-morphological species concepts. The same situation was noted for European species in the Psilocybe cyanescens group (Borovička 2008, Borovička et al. 2010 Species from the G. dryophilus group differ from G. inusitatus by a welldeveloped dryophila-structure in the pileipellis, tetrasporic basidia, and smaller basidiospores. Gymnopus erythropus (Pers.) ...
The authors describe a new bisporic basidiomycete, Gymnopus inusitatus var. cystidiatus, collected in Hungary. It differs morphologically from var. inusitatus by the presence of well-developed cheilocystidia and ecologically by growing in the sandy grassland under Salix. Its taxonomic position is confirmed by DNA studies.
... Guzmán (1983 Guzmán ( , 1995), however, recognizes P. serbica and P. cyanescens as distinct species, but makes no reference to the works of Krieglsteiner. However, as a result of a thorough morphological and ecological study of this species complex in the Czech Republic (Borovička and Hlaváček 2001a; b; Borovička 2003 Borovička , 2005 Borovička , 2006 Borovička , 2008 ), seven taxa have been distinguished . These are divided over two stirpes (groups): (1) stirps Cyanescens, including P. cyanescens Wakef. ...
... This last species was described from North Africa as Hypholoma cyanescens Maire (1928), but no recent collections were available. All of the collections used for DNA extraction fit well with the morphological and ecological concept by Borovička (2008) (Table 1). When possible, holotype collections were used for sequencing (P. ...
... The recently described morphospecies P. bohemica, P. arcana, and P. moravica apparently represent just morphological and ecological varieties of P. serbica, and should accordingly be treated below species level. The species of the two groups can be unambiguously recognized microscopically by occurrence and shape of pleurocystidia (Borovička 2008). Psilocybe serbica now appears as a highly variable species characterized , e.g., by various robustness, shape and coloration of fruit-bodies, and microscopically by a large range of spore size and varying abundance/shape of pleuro-and cheilocystidia . ...
A phylogenetic analysis with three molecular markers was undertaken to test the hypothesis that the complex of Psilocybe cyanescens in Europe consists of several, morphologically distinct species. The results support the existence of two molecularly well-supported
morphological groups, that of Psilocybe cyanescens and P. azurescens on the one hand, and the complex of P. serbica on the other. However, in the last group, no sequence variability within the three molecular markers from P. serbica and related taxa P. bohemica, P. arcana, and P. moravica was found. It was decided, therefore, to merge these taxa into P. serbica, and to distinguish them below species level. It was also demonstrated that the secotioid Weraroa novae-zelandiae belongs to the P. cyanescens species complex. Accordingly, it was transferred to Psilocybe as P. weraroa, nomen novum.
KeywordsStrophariaceae–
Psilocybe serbica
–
Psilocybe cyanescens
–
Weraroa novae-zelandiae
–DNA markers–Phylogeny
El consumo de hongos alucinógenos se ha ido extendiendo hasta popularizarse como droga de abuso. Además de su recolección directa, se venden y consumen en fresco, desecados, tratados (hervidos o cocinados junto a otros productos) o en forma de cápsulas. No obstante, dada su ubicuidad y abundancia en los bosques y prados españoles, es relativamente frecuente la presencia de intoxicaciones o cuadros tóxicos orgánicos no delirantes por estos hongos consumidos con finalidad lúdica por la confusión de la especie alucinógena con otras tóxicas, pudiendo llegar, en algunos casos, a ser mortales. Por ello, en este artículo se trata de informar sobre las especies presentes en Galicia, su potencia psicoactiva y toxicidad.
The Basidiomycota constitutes a major phylum of the kingdom Fungi and is second in species numbers to the Ascomycota. The present work provides an overview of all validly published, currently used basidiomycete genera to date in a single document. An outline of all genera of Basidiomycota is provided, which includes 1928 currently used genera names, with 1263 synonyms, which are distributed in 241 families, 68 orders, 18 classes and four subphyla. We provide brief notes for each accepted genus including information on classification, number of accepted species, type species, life mode, habitat, distribution, and sequence information. Furthermore, three phylogenetic analyses with combined LSU, SSU, 5.8s, rpb1, rpb2, and ef1 datasets for the subphyla Agaricomycotina, Pucciniomycotina and Ustilaginomycotina are conducted, respectively. Divergence time estimates are provided to the family level with 632 species from 62 orders, 168 families and 605 genera. Our study indicates that the divergence times of the subphyla in Basidiomycota are 406–430 Mya, classes are 211–383 Mya, and orders are 99–323 Mya, which are largely consistent with previous studies. In this study, all phylogenetically supported families were dated, with the families of Agaricomycotina diverging from 27–178 Mya, Pucciniomycotina from 85–222 Mya, and Ustilaginomycotina from 79–177 Mya. Divergence times as additional criterion in ranking provide additional evidence to resolve taxonomic problems in the Basidiomycota taxonomic system, and also provide a better understanding of their phylogeny and evolution.
