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Recently, second-life battery systems have received a growing interest as one of the most promising alternatives for decreasing the overall cost of the battery storage systems in stationary applications. The high-cost of batteries represents a prominent barrier for their use in traction and stationary applications. To make second-life batteries eco...
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... shunt ohmic resistor consists of a four-wire Kelvin connection, which is used to measure the voltage drop across the resistor. In addition, a short shielded cable (50 cm) is used to connect the shunt ohmic resistor and BMS ( Figure 6). To filter out the current spikes or noise, the BMS has a high precision analog-to-digital converter (ADC). ...
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... shunt ohmic resistor consists of a four-wire Kelvin connection, which is used to measure the voltage drop across the resistor. In addition, a short shielded cable (50 cm) is used to connect the shunt ohmic resistor and BMS ( Figure 6). To filter out the current spikes or noise, the BMS has a high precision analog-to-digital converter (ADC). ...
Context 3
... shunt ohmic resistor consists of a four-wire Kelvin connection, which is used to measure the voltage drop across the resistor. In addition, a short shielded cable (50 cm) is used to connect the shunt ohmic resistor and BMS ( Figure 6). To filter out the current spikes or noise, the BMS has a high precision analog-to-digital converter (ADC). ...
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... extra power consumption is needed for cooling. As shown in Figure 6, a heat sink and cooling fans have been used to maintain the BMS's temperature within the desirable level (≤40 °C). ...
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... To reduce the impact, retired batteries from EVs can be used in less demanding applications, such as buildings, thereby prolonging their service life [8]. SLBs retired from EVs typically have a state of health (SoH) of around 80-85% Mathematics 2024, 12, 1051 2 of 20 of their nominal capacity [9,10]. Their significant remaining capacity provides an opportunity to repurpose retired batteries in other applications, as shown below [6,[11][12][13][14]: ...
The exponential growth of electric and hybrid vehicles, now numbering close to 6 million on the roads, has highlighted the urgent need to address the environmental impact of their lithium-ion batteries as they approach their end-of-life stages. Repurposing these batteries as second-life batteries (SLBs) for less demanding non-automotive applications is a promising avenue for extending their usefulness and reducing environmental harm. However, the shorter lifespan of SLBs brings them perilously close to their ageing knee, a critical point where further use risks thermal runaway and safety hazards. To mitigate these risks, effective battery management systems must accurately predict the state of health of these batteries. In response to this challenge, this study employs time-series artificial intelligence (AI) models to forecast battery degradation parameters using historical data from their first life cycle. Through rigorous analysis of a lithium-ion NMC cylindrical cell, the study tracks the trends in capacity and internal resistance fade across both the initial and second life stages. Leveraging the insights gained from first-life data, predictive models such as the Holt–Winters method and the nonlinear autoregressive (NAR) neural network are trained to anticipate capacity and internal resistance values during the second life period. These models demonstrate high levels of accuracy, with a maximum error rate of only 2%. Notably, the NAR neural network-based algorithm stands out for its exceptional ability to predict local noise within internal resistance values. These findings hold significant implications for the development of specifically designed battery management systems tailored for second-life batteries.
... To handle heterogeneity among cells, a general energy management system (GEMS) is proposed in [78] to regulate and distribute load demands between varying capacity second-life battery modules under various operating conditions (load profiles, disturbances). Experimental verification of this scheme shows that it successfully manages the performance differences between secondlife battery modules of varying sizes, capacities and chemistries in the same application at the same time. ...
The penetration of electrical vehicles (EVs) is exponentially rising to decarbonize the transport sector resulting in the research problem regarding the future of their retired batteries. Landfill disposal poses an environmental hazard, therefore, recycling or reusing them as second-life batteries (SLBs) are the inevitable options. Reusing the EV batteries with significant remaining useful life in stationary storage applications maximizes the economic benefits while extending the useful lifetime before recycling. Following a critical review of the research in SLBs, the key areas were identified as accurate State of Health (SOH) estimation, optimization of health indicators, battery life cycle assessment including repurposing, End-Of-Life (EOL) extension techniques and significance of first-life degradation data on ageing in second-life applications. The inconsistencies found in the reviewed literature showed that the absence of degradation data from first as well as second life, has a serious impact on accurate remaining useful life (RUL) prediction and SOH estimation. This review, for the first time, critically surveyed the recent studies in the field of identification, selection and control of application-based health indicators in relation to the accurate SOH estimation, offering future research directions in this emerging research area. In addition to the technical challenges, this paper also analyzed the economic perspective of SLBs, highlighting the impact of accuracy in second-life SOH estimation and RUL extension on their projected revenue in stationary storage applications. Lack of standard business model based on future market trends of energy and battery pricing and governing policies for SLBs are identified as urgent research gaps.
... Finding applications that could accept the constraints of reused batteries is still a challenge. To date, most studies have focused on stationary applications [14][15][16][17]. Since the volume required for these applications is limited, few authors have presented mobile applications as an interesting alternative [18][19][20]. ...
Lithium-ion batteries are seen as a key element in reducing global greenhouse gas emissions from the transport and energy sectors. However, efforts are still needed to minimize their environmental impact. This article presents a path towards a circular economy and more sustainable batteries, thanks to their reuse in mobile charging stations for electric vehicles. This work presents the results of characterization tests and modeling of second life batteries. The presented characterization test and electrical models can be used as references to evaluate the performance of aged batteries after their first life. Detailed test procedures and data results are provided in an open-access data paper.
... In this regard, [7] develops an aggregator model for gridable vehicles and second-life batteries, in the way as they can be centralized managed for their participation on the distribution network. Likewise, [8] focuses on developing a proper energy management control for power converters interfacing second-life battery packs in stationary applications. Sáenz-de-Ibarra, et al [9] discussed an optimal sizing methodology for a second-life Li-ion battery bank with grid implications. ...
... Thus, the energy stored in batteries is upper and lower limited by their nominal capacity and depth-ofdischarge settings, as said (6). On the other hand, (7) and (8) impose limits on the power exchanged with the home. As customary, (5) is completed by (9), which establishes that the initial and final SOC are equal. ...
About 11 million tons of retired batteries are expected to be produced globally by 2030, of which a huge percentage will proceed from individual owners who charge their vehicles at home. To overcome this issue, multiple studies focused on the viability of reusing mobility batteries for different applications. However, this kind of analysis in individual dwellings are still scarce. This paper aims at filling this gap by developing a novel optimization methodology for design of photovoltaic arrays in domestic installations considering second-purpose batteries from mobility. In particular, we aim at analyzing the effect of using batteries from vehicles when they are no longer valid for mobility. Thus, we consider the problem in which these batteries are used for stationary applications at home, observing their effects on the photovoltaic design as well as other aspects like total project cost and self-consumption rates. To this end, a planning strategy is developed including suitable models of photovoltaic units, flexible loads and electrical vehicle. The developed methodology is tested on a benchmark prosumer environment and different scenarios are profusely studied. The results obtained demonstrate that the use of second-purpose batteries seem profitable in smart homes, reducing the total cost by 15 % and increasing the self-consumption rate by 20 %. Moreover, other aspects like its effect on the final scheduling and the behavior under limited photovoltaic capacity are commented. Lastly, the importance of the developed methodology for future similar studies is highlighted.
... LiC technology is employed at the system level regarding its applications, such as automotive or stationary. Therefore, a holistic modeling approach is needed to extract its electrical and thermal parameters, which will then be used for lifetime modeling [31], safety assessment [32], cell equalization management [33], and thermal management [34]. For example, an accurate electro-thermal model is required for electrical and thermal issues in the developed management system [35]. ...
This review paper aims to provide the background and literature review of a hybrid energy storage system (ESS) called a lithium-ion capacitor (LiC). Since the LiC structure is formed based on the anode of lithium-ion batteries (LiB) and cathode of electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs), a short overview of LiBs and EDLCs is presented following the motivation of hybrid ESSs. Then, the used materials in LiC technology are elaborated. Later, a discussion regarding the current knowledge and recent development related to electro-thermal and lifetime modeling for the LiCs is given. As the performance and lifetime of LiCs highly depends on the operating temperature, heat transfer modeling and heat generation mechanisms of the LiC technology have been introduced, and the published papers considering the thermal management of LiCs have been listed and discussed. In the last section, the applications of LiCs have been elaborated.
... LiC technology is employed at the system level regarding its applications, such as automotive or stationary. Therefore, a holistic modeling approach is needed to extract its electrical and thermal parameters, which will then be used for lifetime modeling [44], safety assessment [45], cell equalization management [46], and thermal management [47]. For example, an accurate electrothermal model is required for electrical and thermal issues in the developed management system. ...
Lithium-ion capacitors (LiCs) are hybrid energy storage systems that combine the advantages of lithium-ion batteries (LiB) and electric double-layer capacitors (EDLC). Therefore, LiCs have higher power capability and longer lifetime compared to LiBs. LiCs have also higher energy density and higher voltage range than EDLCs. Based on the mentioned advantages, LiCs are perfect solutions for high power applications where high charge and discharge currents are applied. Nevertheless, LiCs’ performance highly depends on temperature. Therefore, a robust thermal management system (TMS) is indispensable to ensure reliability. Such a system-level management is linked to robust modeling tools, which are called electro-thermal models. The need for a validated electro-thermal model is trivial in high power applications where LiCs are subjected to high current rate of 150 A, which is typical for fast acceleration of electric vehicles.
In this PhD dissertation, the target cell is a commercial prismatic 2300 F LiC with 1 Ah capacity. A holistic methodology has been considered for electrical, thermal, and lifetime models that are developed in MATLAB/SIMULINK® environment for high dynamic current rates under a wide range of temperatures from -30 °C to +60 °C. The electrical model is validated against the experiments considering the voltage measurements. The thermal model is validated against the experiments by temperature verification. Additionally, the lifetime model is validated against the experiments considering the capacity degradation. A critical parameter from the developed 1D model is the LiCs’ power loss that is an input for the 3D thermal analysis of the proposed active, passive, and hybrid thermal management systems (TMS). The calculated power loss enables us to investigate the heat dissipation and temperature pattern inside the LiC cell. Such a coupled 1D/3D model for the LiC technology was not found during the comprehensive literature review.
The proposed TMSs in this PhD thesis are active, passive, and hybrid cooling methods including air cooled TMS (ACTMS), liquid cooled TMS (LCTMS), heat sink cooling system (HSCS), phase change materials (PCM), and heat pipe cooling system (HPCS). Test benches for all of the proposed TMSs are made experimentally, and analyzed and verified numerically employing COMSOL Multiphysics® 5.5 software package. The main case study that all the proposed TMSs are being compared with, is natural convection (NC), in which the thermal behavior of the cell is studied under a 150 A continuous current rate without any rest that is considered as super-fast charging/discharging that is unique. After investigation of the NC case study, the cooling performance of the proposed active and passive TMSs have been investigated under the super-fast driving profile. Then, hybrid solutions comprising different combinations of the proposed active/passive TMSs are developed and tested experimentally and numerically. Finally, the best thermal solutions are chosen and compared to be implemented for a module of LiC cells to study their performance.
... Among these three classifications, lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries that come under secondary batteries, are considered to be the key battery technologies used in EVs. 12 Due to several characteristics of Li-ion batteries such as high energy density, high power density, a wide range of discharging time, high energy efficiency, low daily selfdischarge, long life cycles, smaller size, and lightweight, vehicle manufacturers give preference to these batteries. [13][14][15] The existence of a battery's second life is only when the capacity of a new battery used in an EV reaches up to 80% of its initial capacity. ...
... Pre-processing and normalization, enhance the convergence rate and minimize the undesirable effect of raw data. Here, the F I G U R E 9 A, Constant current discharging curve of B0005; B, Constant current discharging time of B0005 normalization range of input and output will be from 0 to 1, and the normalized value will be calculated by Equation (12). ...
Electric vehicle‐discarded second‐life batteries still contain 80% of usable capacity and can serve as a low‐cost alternative for microgrid storage applications where the battery storage capacity is flexible against transport applications. By accurately predicting the remaining useful capacity or state of health of these batteries, using the data from their first life operation, their cost‐effectiveness for microgrid energy management can be analyzed. For this purpose, three machine learning models are proposed here. The input parameters for the models are selected from the charging and discharging profiles of batteries, considering both the aging and regeneration phenomenon. Eight different input cases with and without K‐fold (K = 10) cross‐validation are used for training the proposed models. Based on the comparative analysis it is found that all the models trained with K‐fold cross‐validation, show minimum error as compared to without K‐fold. The forecasting results from multiple approaches showed that the long short term memory model trained with battery discharging profile outperformed other models, quantified by multiple error indices, including root mean square error (0.009147), mean absolute error (0.005841), and R2 (0.9713). The robustness of the model is validated with multiple battery datasets. Further, the study illustrates the importance of activation functions, in machine learning models used for forecasting.
... With real-life tests, this study also aims to observe the impact of BTMS on the cooling efficiency and to optimize the system design. In [26] a detailed explanation of the structure and function of battery management system (BMS) has been given. The BMS utilizes a passive method to equalize the cells voltage by using 12 ohmic resistors (switched shunt resistors). ...
Lithium-ion capacitor (LiC) has emerged as a promising technology for high power applications due to the solution offered by its power density, higher-voltage operation than super-capacitor (SC), and their excellent durability (more than 2 million cycles). However, for this kind of applications, a thermal management system is crucial to ensure thermal stability and a long lifespan. Nonetheless, in order to design a proper thermal management system, dedicated thermal modelling development is an essential task. In this study, a detailed three-dimensional thermal model is developed in COMSOL Multiphysics software at cell and module level. Pertaining to the versatility of the detailed model, an air-cooled thermal management system is designed considering different topologies. Then, different operating and design parameters including inlet air speed, inter-cell spacing, and the airflow direction are studied comprehensively. The simulation results are validated with experimental results showing an acceptable error of less than 2 °C. It is proved and validated that the side cooling topology with a 5 m/s air velocity and a 5 mm spacing between cells is the optimum design.
... Furthermore, this confines the applications of SC equalizers to simple voltage balancing. Without an interface and collaboration with the control from the battery management system (BMS), it is difficult to achieve advanced state control accounting for the thermal [31], and position [32] and dynamic [22,33] parameters of specific cells in the string; especially, for the applications of second-life batteries and hybrid energy storage packs [11,34,35]. ...
A novel implementation of multi-port zero-current switching (ZCS) switched-capacitor (SC) converters for battery management applications is presented. In addition to the auto-balancing feature offered by the SC technique, the proposed SC converter permits individual control of the charging or discharging current of the series-connected energy storage elements, such as the battery or super-capacitor cells. This approach enables advanced state control and accelerates the equalizing process by coordinated operation with the battery management system (BMS) and an adjustable voltage source, which can be implemented by a DC-DC converter interfaced to the energy storage string. Different configurations, including the single-input multi-output (SIMO), multi-input single-output (MISO) SC converters, and the corresponding altered circuits for string-to-cells, cells-to-string, as well as cells-to-cells equalizers, are discussed with a circuit analysis and derivation of the associated mathematical representation. The simulation study and experimental results indicated a significant increase in the balancing speed with the presence of BMS and closed-loop control of cell currents.
... Due to the potential of obtaining higher specific energy and energy density, the adoption of Li-ion batteries is expected to grow fast in EVs, particularly in PHEVs and BEVs. Therefore, this research study focused on Li-ion batteries [41]. ...
In response to climate change, which is caused by the increasing pollution of the environment and leads to the deterioration of human health, future electricity generations should reduce reliance on fossil fuels by growing the use of clean and renewable energy generation sources and by using clean vehicle technologies. Battery storage systems have been recognized as one of the most promising approaches for supporting the renewable energy generation sources and cleanly powering vehicles instead of burning gasoline and diesel fuel. However, the cost of batteries is still a prominent barrier for their use in stationary and traction applications. As a rule, the cost of batteries can be decreased by lowering material costs, enhancing process efficiencies, and increasing production volume. Another more effective solution is called Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) application. In V2G application, the battery system can be used to support the grid services, whereas the battery is still in the vehicle. To make a battery system economically viable for V2G/G2V applications, an effective power-electronics converter should be selected as well. This converter should be supported by an advanced control strategy. Therefore, this article provides a detailed technical assessment and review of V2G/G2V concepts, in conjunction with various power-electronics converter topologies. In this paper, modeling and detailed control strategies are fully designed and investigated in terms of dynamic response and harmonics. Furthermore, an extensive design and analysis of charging systems for low-duty/high-duty vehicles are also presented.
