Proposed membrane organization of syb and syx for the BAT models. (A) The pre-docking state of a synaptic vesicle (lavender) is shown prior to contact with the plasma membrane (pink). The intra-membrane, hydrophobic domains of vesicle-associated syb and plasma membrane-associated syx (in dark blue with the single letter code denoting the amino acid sequences of the mouse proteins here and in all later panels) are shown at the interface between the inner and outer hemi-bilayers. These intra-membrane sequences are proposed to adopt β-structure which is preserved in panels (B-E). Palmitoylation of C (cysteine) residues is not depicted. The C-ends of syb and syx are presumably modified to eliminate their charge (B) Once SNARE zippering commences and the synaptic vesicle contacts the plasma membrane, it initiates a translocation of the hydrophobic domains of syb and syx from the inter-leaflet position shown here toward the vesicle-plasma membrane interface as illustrated in C (C) This shows an intermediate state in which the hydrophobic domains of syb and syx are re-locating to the vesicle-plasma membrane interface (D) This is a cross-sectional representation of the docked and primed state of the synaptic vesicle-plasma membrane interface for the BAT model. Syb sequence is dark blue while syx is green. The syx partner for syb would sit behind the plane of this image, as would the syb partner for syx (E) "Top" view of the organization of syb-syx pairs of a docked and primed synaptic vesicle. This is the postulated end-to-end organization of the syb-syx pairs that one would observe by removing the external leaflet of the plasma membrane thereby exposing the elongated β-structure of these domains. Note that these images are drawn to accentuate the arrangement of syb and syx, first within their respective membranes and then at the interface between the vesicle and plasmalemma. 

Proposed membrane organization of syb and syx for the BAT models. (A) The pre-docking state of a synaptic vesicle (lavender) is shown prior to contact with the plasma membrane (pink). The intra-membrane, hydrophobic domains of vesicle-associated syb and plasma membrane-associated syx (in dark blue with the single letter code denoting the amino acid sequences of the mouse proteins here and in all later panels) are shown at the interface between the inner and outer hemi-bilayers. These intra-membrane sequences are proposed to adopt β-structure which is preserved in panels (B-E). Palmitoylation of C (cysteine) residues is not depicted. The C-ends of syb and syx are presumably modified to eliminate their charge (B) Once SNARE zippering commences and the synaptic vesicle contacts the plasma membrane, it initiates a translocation of the hydrophobic domains of syb and syx from the inter-leaflet position shown here toward the vesicle-plasma membrane interface as illustrated in C (C) This shows an intermediate state in which the hydrophobic domains of syb and syx are re-locating to the vesicle-plasma membrane interface (D) This is a cross-sectional representation of the docked and primed state of the synaptic vesicle-plasma membrane interface for the BAT model. Syb sequence is dark blue while syx is green. The syx partner for syb would sit behind the plane of this image, as would the syb partner for syx (E) "Top" view of the organization of syb-syx pairs of a docked and primed synaptic vesicle. This is the postulated end-to-end organization of the syb-syx pairs that one would observe by removing the external leaflet of the plasma membrane thereby exposing the elongated β-structure of these domains. Note that these images are drawn to accentuate the arrangement of syb and syx, first within their respective membranes and then at the interface between the vesicle and plasmalemma. 

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Parallel zippering of the SNARE domains of syntaxin 1A/B, SNAP-25, and VAMP/synaptobrevin 2 is widely regarded as supplying the driving force for exocytotic events at nerve terminals and elsewhere. However, in spite of intensive research, no consensus has been reached concerning the molecular mechanism by which these SNARE proteins catalyze membran...

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Synaptic vesicle fusion (exocytosis) is a precisely regulated process that entails the formation of SNARE complexes between the vesicle protein synaptobrevin 2 (VAMP2) and the plasma membrane proteins Syntaxin 1 and SNAP-25. The sub-cellular localization of the latter two molecules remains unclear, although they have been the subject of many recent...

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... The importance of VAMP2 in SV/membrane fusion has been demonstrated using a variety of research methods. The electrostatic interaction between VAMP2 and SYX-1A induces membrane bending forces, which results in the pulling together of SVs and presynaptic membranes, thereby facilitating membrane fusion and exocytosis events (Williams et al., 2009;Gundersen, 2017;Hesselbarth and Schmidt, 2021). Wittig et al. (2021) applied cross-linking mass spectrometry to study the interactions among SV proteins using purified, unstimulated SVs. ...
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Vesicle-associated membrane protein 2 (VAMP2, also known as synaptobrevin-2), encoded by VAMP2 in humans, is a key component of the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) complex. VAMP2 combined with syntaxin-1A (SYX-1A) and synaptosome-associated protein 25 (SNAP-25) produces a force that induces the formation of fusion pores, thereby mediating the fusion of synaptic vesicles and the release of neurotransmitters. VAMP2 is largely unstructured in the absence of interaction partners. Upon interaction with other SNAREs, the structure of VAMP2 stabilizes, resulting in the formation of four structural domains. In this review, we highlight the current knowledge of the roles of the VAMP2 domains and the interaction between VAMP2 and various fusion-related proteins in the presynaptic cytoplasm during the fusion process. Our summary will contribute to a better understanding of the roles of the VAMP2 protein in membrane fusion.
... Synaptic vesicles are docked and primed at the active zone release sites. Docked vesicles are those in direct contact with the plasma membrane, whilst primed vesicles are a subset of docked vesicles whose SNARE fusion machinery is fully assembled (Gundersen, 2017). The rapid, synchronous release is mediated by the docked and primed vesicles which immediately fuse with the membrane upon stimulation and constitute the "readily releasable pool" (RRP). ...
Thesis
Synaptic plasticity, the activity-dependent modifications in synaptic strength, is a remarkable feature of the nervous system and has long been postulated as the cellular basis of learning and memory. A well characterized form of synaptic plasticity is long-term potentiation (LTP) of excitatory synaptic transmission in CA1 hippocampal pyramidal neurons. LTP requires the fast recruitment and stabilization of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionate receptors (AMPARs) at postsynaptic sites via the regulated trafficking and exocytosis of recycling endosomes (REs). Exocytosis is mediated by a family of proteins called soluble NSF (N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein) attachment protein receptors or SNAREs. These proteins mediate membrane fusion by forming a complex composed of one R-SNARE, usually on one membrane, and two or three Q-SNAREs, usually on the other membrane. The formation of the SNARE complex provides specificity for a controllable fusion as first proposed by Rothman et al in 1993. SNARE proteins have been well characterized for their function in presynaptic vesicle fusion during neurotransmitter release. However, their role in activity-dependent post-synaptic membrane trafficking, and particularly AMPAR trafficking, remained elusive until recently. Given the importance of somato-dendritic recycling in neuronal physiology, our goal was to identify major players of dendritic RE exocytosis. In this study, we identify VAMP4 as the key vesicular SNARE protein that mediates the majority of RE exocytosis in dendrites. In contrast, VAMP2 plays only a minor role even though it was previously identified as critical for the post-synaptic expression of LTP. The knockdown (KD) of VAMP4 reduces the exocytosis frequency of transferrin receptor (TfR), a marker of REs and a surrogate marker of AMPAR trafficking pathways. Surprisingly, expression of tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT), which cleaves VAMP2, does not affect TfR exocytosis. Moreover, VAMP4 KD enhances the fraction of AMPARs at the cell surface and its recycling. Consistent with this result, in organotypic hippocampal slices, VAMP4 KD increases the amplitude of AMPAR mediated excitatory post-synaptic currents (EPSCs) without affecting NMDAR mediated EPSCs in CA1 pyramidal neurons. Finally, VAMP4 KD reduces LTP while TeNT totally blocks it. Our data suggests a model where the depletion of VAMP4 leads to a basal state missorting of AMPARs to the plasma membrane, which consequently impairs LTP possibly via an occlusion mechanism. Additionally, the opposing changes in the levels of both TfR and AMPAR on cell surface upon VAMP4 KD suggest that these receptors may be sorted and trafficked independently. We therefore propose that VAMP4 and VAMP2 mediate functionally distinct and complementary trafficking pathways modulating synaptic strength and plasticity.
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This mini-review starts with a summary of the crucial contributions Ricardo Miledi made to our understanding of how the action potential triggers fast, synchronous transmitter release. It then transitions to the discovery of synaptotagmin and its role as the exocytotic Ca²⁺ sensor at nerve terminals. The final section confronts the array of unique models that have been proposed to explain the membrane fusion step of exocytosis. More than a dozen different hypotheses seek to explain the terminal steps of the exocytotic cascade. It will be an interesting challenge for the field to distinguish among these possibilities. Nevertheless, with ongoing technological advances, perhaps we will have a better picture of this process by the end of the coming decade. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: SI: Miledi's contributions.