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Polymetallic nodules found in the Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone in the NE Pacific contain more nickel, manganese and cobalt than all terrestrial reserves combined. Following the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention and its 1994 Implementing Agreement, the resources of the international seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction will be develope...
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... to land-based mining projects, in order to attract financing for the project's development, it will be necessary to report the stage of the mine development by means of standard reporting templates. As recommended by the ISA, the different development stages follow the International Reporting Template for the public reporting of Exploration Results, Mineral Resources and Mineral Reserves [31]. Understanding these interdependencies is critical when quantifying risk during a new mine development. Following this step-by-step approach, the overall schedule from pre-feasibility to commercial production is expected to be 15 years, as shown in Fig. ...
Context 2
... for the public reporting of Exploration Results, Mineral Resources and Mineral Reserves [31]. Understanding these interdependencies is critical when quantifying risk during a new mine development. Following this step-by-step approach, the overall schedule from pre-feasibility to commercial production is expected to be 15 years, as shown in Fig. ...
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The article studies the history, legal framework of the International Seabed Authority, its functions , structure and current work. The analysis focuses on potential fields of ISA activity in the Arctic. Despite the ongoing expert discussions, the author is of the view that Part XI of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention , setting out the legal basis...
Citations
... Polymetallic nodules are a mineral resource in the submarine plain at a depth of 3500-6500 m, which contain several kinds of metals such as copper, cobalt, nickel, and manganese [4]. At the same time, they have more abundant reserves and wider distributions on the seafloor, as well as simpler collection operations than other minerals [5,6]. Therefore, polymetallic nodules are currently considered the most promising mineral resource, and they hold great mining value (especially for commercial mining). ...
... As a critical component of the miner, the front collector directly relates to the miner's working performance. The collection form of the front collector includes the mechanical type [10], the hydraulic type [11] and the compound mechanical-hydraulic type [5]. Currently, the hydraulic type collector has been widely applied due to its advantages of high efficiency, great environmental protection, and low cost [12]. ...
The hydraulic collector is an important device for collecting seafloor polymetallic nodules. In this study, a hydraulic polymetallic nodule collector with two acquisition nozzles and one transmission nozzle is described. The numerical model of the hydraulic collector is established based on the solid–liquid two-phase flow method, and it is verified by experimental tests. On this basis, the collection mechanism of the hydraulic collector is analyzed, and the effects of structural parameters and working parameters on its collection performance are explored. The results show that the collection height and slant angle of the acquisition nozzle are key factors for collection efficiency, with optimal heights below 150 mm and angles between 45 and 49∘. The recommended range for the center distance between the two acquisition confluence tubes is 650–730 mm. Excessive acquisition and transmission flow rates make a negligible contribution to improving the collection efficiency, but can also cause a significant increase in energy consumption. Therefore, the recommended ranges for acquisition and transmission flow rates are 140–160 m3/h and less than 80 m3/h, respectively. All of the results indicated that the parameters of the developed hydraulic collector were set reasonably, which thus ensured a balance between the collection efficiency and energy consumption.
... The Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) is a large abyssal area beyond the national jurisdiction in the northern tropical part of the Pacific Ocean, west of Mexico and California and south-east of Hawaii, and governed by the International Seabed Authority (the ISA). This zone has been the area of scientific and industrial interest since the 1950s and is famous for the largest known deposits of polymetallic nodules-concretions containing various metals, including manganese, iron, copper, nickel, and cobalt (Van Nijen et al. 2018)-covering the seafloor (ISA 2010; Kuhn and Rühlemann 2021). It is also the largest region of exploration activities undertaken by ISA contractors and the scientific community and, as of now, the best recognized region for abyssal plain exploration in terms of environmental conditions . ...
The Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) in the tropical East Pacific is a region of interest for deep-sea mining due to its underwater deposits of polymetallic nodules containing economically important metals such as nickel, copper, and cobalt. It is also a region of extensive baseline studies aiming to describe the state of the environment, including the biodiversity of the benthic fauna. An abundant component of the abyssal plain ecosystem consists of sessile fauna which encrusts polymetallic nodules and are vulnerable to potential impacts arising from exploitation activities, particularly removal of substrate. Therefore, this fauna is often considered to have key species whose genetic connectivity should be studied to assess their ecological resilience. One such species is Abyssoprimnoa gemina Cairns, 2015, a deep-sea coral from the CCZ whose presence in the Interoceanmetal Joint Organization (IOM) claim area has been confirmed during samplings. In this study, we used next-generation sequencing (NGS) to obtain the 18S nuclear rRNA gene and the complete mitochondrial genome of A. gemina from IOM exploration area. The mitogenome is 18,825 bp long and encodes for 14 protein coding genes, 2 rRNAs, and a single tRNA. The two phylogeny reconstructions derived from these data confirm previous studies and display A. gemina within a highly supported cluster of seven species whose mitogenomes are all colinear and of comparable size. This study also demonstrates the suitability of NGS for DNA barcoding of the benthic megafauna of the CCZ, which could become part of the IOM protocol for the assessment of population diversity and genetic connectivity in its claim area.
... Another suggestion that has been put forward is the tandem offloading using a floating hose -favorable due to its similarities with existing practices in the offshore oil and gas industry. 33 The pros and cons of side-by-side versus tandem transfer were studied in a liquid cargo transfer setting. There is a good proven track record of side-by-side transfer, but tandem offloading can be used in harsher weather conditions because of the larger distance between vessels and easier disconnection and departure in case of emergency. ...
... It is questionable whether three seabed-going bulldozers is the most gentle approach for the seabed. Others have proposed one miner to cover the three excavation functionalities from Figure 2. 33,34 A wide search for technology options is still needed to ensure that good solutions are found. The use of known or mature technology in a new setting has lead to incidents in the past. ...
In this paper, model‐based systems engineering (MBSE) and discrete event simulation (DES) are combined to assess the performance of an offshore production system at an early stage. Various systems engineering tools are applied to an industrial case concerning the retrieval of deep‐sea minerals, and a simulation engine is developed to calculate the annual production output. A mean production of 1 Million tonnes of ore per year is estimated for an operation in the Norwegian Sea using Monte Carlo simulation. Depending on the limiting design wave height of the marine operations, the estimated production output ranges from 280,000 tonnes to 1.8 Million tonnes per year. The constrained parameter of the production system is particularly the wave height operational limit of the ship‐to‐ship transfer operation. We present the learning outcome from applying MBSE and DES to this case and discuss important aspects for improved performance.
... Most of the publications focusing on strategic and economic aspects could be classified as either resource estimates [140][141][142][143][144][145], mostly for nodules, or papers examining the strategic importance and/or economic feasibility of seabed resources from a critical raw materials point of view [2,6,[146][147][148][149][150]. The latter frequently include comparisons with the supply from recycling and land-based mineral resources and overlap, to some extent, with the 'Political and legal' or 'Environmental' categories. ...
Deep-sea mining is a multidimensional concept that requires interdisciplinary research and development to close the current knowledge gaps. This study conducts a bibliometric analysis of the research focus, publishing structures and international and inter-institutional cooperation as evident in academic publishing. This could aid in the identification of knowledge gaps, research opportunities, potential inter-institutional cooperation and the need for strategic investment and policy development. The analysis is based on a sample of 1935 journal papers (from 1968 to 2021) obtained by searching Elsevier’s Scopus database for publications containing an explicit reference to deep-sea mining (or equivalent terms) in their title, abstract or keywords. Publication numbers are broken down by publication year, subject area, author affiliations and source. The scientific output mirrors the commercial interest and the growing environmental concern. A detailed analysis of content is performed on the 2017-2021 subset, containing one third of the total publications. Here, China (152 publ.), the United Kingdom (133), the United States (115) and Germany (107) are the top contributors. China has had a comparatively stronger focus on engineering aspects and produces very few publications with international co-authorship. Almost half of the 2017-2021 publications focus on environmental aspects, whereas engineering aspects (especially vertical transport) are addressed by close to one third. Little is published on site remediation and ore processing, or specifically on ferromanganese crusts.
... In 2008, the ISA workshop analyzed and recognized a preliminary cost model (a 20-year production cycle, 1.5 million tons per year) for a nodule mining and processing venture [14]. In current ISA exploitation regulation formulation discussions, the commercial exploitation scale of nodules is set at 3 million tons of dry nodules, but it is recommended that this is realized through two mining systems, each with an annual output of 1.5 million tons of dry nodules [15,16]. Considering sea conditions and the time it takes to maintain these systems, calculations were usually based on 250 working days per year. ...
Deep-sea polymetallic nodules are a mineral resource with potential for commercial development. Due to the unique deep-sea environment in which they are found, specialized technology and equipment are required for their extraction. In this paper, firstly, the development of deep-sea polymetallic nodule mining technology is classified into three stages, and its characteristics are summarized. Moreover, the results from research into deep-sea polymetallic nodule mining technology are analyzed, including proposals for mining systems, research into key technologies, basic scientific problems, and proof of technical feasibility from sea tests. Secondly, the testing of the collector prototype and the environmental impact assessment study of Global Sea Mineral Resources NV, as well as the progress of the deep-sea polymetallic nodule mining test project in China, are introduced. On this basis, the opportunities and challenges brought by the fast-growing demand for electric vehicles to the development of deep-sea polymetallic mining technology is analyzed, and a possible technical scheme for a mining system and the trends in its development towards high reliability and high standards of environmental protection according to the requirements of commercial exploitation are explored. This provides a reference for the research and development of high-efficiency technology and equipment for the mining of deep-sea polymetallic nodules.
... The Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone is located in the international seabed area of the Northeast Pacific Ocean. Rich in polymetallic nodules dominated by nickel, manganese, and cobalt, the C-C zone is managed by the International Seabed Authority (ISA) in accordance with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea [46]. The ISA has successively promulgated seabed area development regulations and contract terms since 2016, but not yet effective [47]. ...
... No plano internacional, no que diz respeito aos fundos marinhos este debate é consolidado, tanto no Tribunal Internacional do Direito do Mar quanto na Autoridade Internacional para os Fundos Marinhos. Ainda, no plano internacional, também é constatada a ausência de dados científicos suficientes quanto aos impactos da mineração em fundos marinhos, sendo possível reconhecer o aumento da convergência de consenso científico em torno desta ausência desses dados (NIJEN;PASSEL and SQUIRES, 2018, p. 135). Aumenta consideravelmente esta dificuldade a complexidade de diferentes tipos de conformações geológicos, biotas envolvidas e inter-relações entre sistemas marinhos. ...
O presente artigo possui como objetivo descrever e analisar a proteção jurídico-ambiental relativa às atividades de mineração na plataforma continental brasileira. Para tanto, será utilizado o método descritivo com o emprego da abordagem qualitativa. As fontes primárias da presente pesquisa são compostas por normas internacionais e nacionais, documentos governamentais e decisões jurisdicionais. Não obstante a legislação e a jurisprudência assegurem a proteção ao meio ambiente, a mineração na plataforma continental, ainda carece da consolidação de critérios efetivos de proteção ambiental, particularmente, quanto à aplicação do princípio da precaução, dada a incerteza científica quanto aos impactos ambientais.
... Their occurrence in the Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone (CCFZ) in the northern Pacific Ocean has arguably been investigated in most detail. In this area, several commercial, academic and parastatal groups have been testing technical equipment and are actively investigating the metallurgical, economic, and environmental issues associated with such a deep-sea mining operation (Friedmann et al., 2016;Abramovski et al., 2017;DeWolfe and Ling, 2018;Van Nijen et al., 2018;Wegorzewski et al., 2018;Khripounoff et al., 2006;Vanreusel et al., 2016;De Smet et al., 2017;Heinrich et al., 2020;Volz et al., 2020). Should exploitation regulations be adopted by the International Seabed Authority in 2022, production might start as soon as 2027 (Van Nijen et al., 2018). ...
... In this area, several commercial, academic and parastatal groups have been testing technical equipment and are actively investigating the metallurgical, economic, and environmental issues associated with such a deep-sea mining operation (Friedmann et al., 2016;Abramovski et al., 2017;DeWolfe and Ling, 2018;Van Nijen et al., 2018;Wegorzewski et al., 2018;Khripounoff et al., 2006;Vanreusel et al., 2016;De Smet et al., 2017;Heinrich et al., 2020;Volz et al., 2020). Should exploitation regulations be adopted by the International Seabed Authority in 2022, production might start as soon as 2027 (Van Nijen et al., 2018). As such, deep-sea polymetallic nodule mining might constitute part of the solution to mitigate future nickel and cobalt supply shortage. ...
The electrical vehicle (EV) boom forecasted for the next decades raises questions on the mining industry's ability to provide enough battery-metals, such as nickel and cobalt, needed for this energy revolution. In this study, we investigate the limits of the mining industry pipeline for development of new mines for these two metals, regarding both the size of total anticipated production capacity and the pace of mine development.
To provide transparency about the data used, we enclose an extensive database that reflects the state of the industrial nickel and cobalt mining industry in 2019. Using declared and estimated overall recovery factors for current mining operations, our database allows to distinguish between the 2019 ‘cradle’ production (i.e. metal contained in material raised from the Earth) and the ‘gate’ production (i.e. the amount of metal contained in various sales products).
The database also provides an up-to-date estimate of the established mineral resources and reserves of the metals, which can further be split between different deposit types, mineral processing, or sale product types. Current global resources for the two metals, which for more than 80 percent consist of industry-standard (code-based) estimates, amount to 269 Mt nickel metal and 21.3 Mt cobalt metal, respectively. The resources are about 100 or more times larger than the 2019 ‘cradle’ production for the metals, illustrating that resource depletion will not be a pressing issue on the short to medium term.
The size of the future anticipated mine production is estimated from the size of the resources of current advanced exploration and development projects using the resources-versus-production relationship that exists for operating mines today. A review of historical lead times for nickel mine development in the timeframes 1960–1979, 1980–1999 and 2000–2020, based on 67 mines of different sizes, types, and global locations, indicate that the time elapsed between the start of the last successful exploration campaign and the beginning of commercial mine production (the so-called “lead time III”) has significantly increased during the last two decades, as shown by a shift in the median from 8 to 12 years. While timeframes for fund raising and construction of mining projects (here defined as the ‘development lead time’) have remained largely constant (median of 4 years), demonstrating the feasibility of a project (‘feasibility lead time’) has apparently become more time-consuming.
Evaluation of the size of anticipated metal production and the lead time for mine development indicates that most scenarios for metal demand over the next 10–15 years, especially the high-case scenarios that aim to reach the carbon emission goals of the Paris Agreement, cannot be met by the development of new, land-based mines alone. Since supply from battery recycling will be relatively limited over these timeframes, additional primary supply will be needed. This will require a vast capacity increase of existing land-based mines, and potentially, the development of marine resources.
... Financial models are an indispensable tool in the study of payment mechanisms for exploitation regulation. Van Nijen presented a detailed, vertical, stochastic techno-economic assessment from a contractor's perspective, and the economic performance measured by the internal rate of return was compared using deterministic and probabilistic commodity price forecasting models [8]. Considering geological, economic, financial, technical, and operational aspects, Sebastian Ernst Volkmann proposed a spatial planning tool to assess the techno-economic requirements and implications of manganese nodule mining on deep-sea deposits [9]. ...
The international seabed area (i.e., the “Area”) is rich in mineral resources. According to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the relevant implemented agreements, in 2012, the International Seabed Authority (ISA) began to develop the regulations for the exploitation of mineral resources in the Area. The most important part of the regulations involves determining the distribution of benefits from the exploitation of mineral resources in the Area between the ISA and the contractors. The establishment of a financial model to evaluate the economic benefits and compare the distribution scheme was the basic method relied on in the current study of payment mechanism. According to the characteristics of the exploitation project of mineral resources in the Area, the discounted cash flow method was selected to construct the financial model. Taking China’s deep-sea mineral resources development project in the Area as the background, the main parameters of the model were determined. A comparative study of similar financial models with Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and other foreign countries was carried out, in addition to a sensitivity analysis of parameters. On the basis of the assurance that the contractor’s internal rate of return was not lower than the level of the land mining enterprise, the financial model was used to calculate the internal rate of return and the revenue of royalty under different payment mechanisms and rates. The advantages and disadvantages of different payment mechanisms in the exploitation of mineral resources in the area were analyzed. Lastly, the possible impacts of deep-sea polymetallic nodule mining on Terrestrial metal markets were highlighted.
... Several models of a manganese nodule mining operation have appeared in the published and grey literatures, and all reach similar conclusions about likely positive profitability. Most employ simula-tion approaches, including Monte Carlo analysis, to accommodate stochasticity in important model parameters, such as metal grades and volumes, operating costs, or mineral prices (Van Nijen et al. 2018). Descriptions of the distributions of prices as inputs into simulation models are based typically upon naïve models of historical prices, however, but these may be supplemented by subjective expert forecasts of future price behaviour (Roth and Royo 2018). ...
Marine science is now moving quickly to reveal the biophysical, geochemical, and ecological properties of the deep sea. As this understanding grows, deep-sea resources will begin to be exploited more extensively, embodying the hopes of many for a Blue Economy. Institutions to govern this exploitation are only just finding their strides or even just emerging, but there are many cases already of resource overuse and degradation, including overfishing and the impacts beginning to be wrought by a changing climate. Progress towards the sustainable development of the deep sea requires useful indicators that point to changes in human well-being as the deep sea is exploited, such as measures of inclusive wealth. Accounting prices for the natural capital of the deep sea would be useful indicators, and several examples are explored to illustrate current understanding and research gaps. A future economic research agenda would involve refining estimates of accounting prices for the most important types of deep-sea natural capital, locating these within linked classifications of ecosystem services and natural capital, and the design and implementation of a system of economic and environmental accounts for the deep sea comprising the high seas, which lies beyond the purview of individual states.
