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Profile diagram of vegetation and soils for the four different community types at National Forest Carajás, state of Pará, Brazil: herbaceous campo rupestre (HCR), shrubby campo rupestre (SCR), capão forest (CF), and montane forest (MF).
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Vegetation and soil properties of an iron-rich canga (laterite) island on the largest outcrop of banded-iron formation in Serra de Carajás (eastern Amazonia, Brazil) were studied along a topographic gradient (738-762 m asl), and analyzed to test the hypothesis that soil chemical and physical attributes play a key role in the structure and floristic...
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The Rupestrian Grassland is a vegetational complex with grassy to shrubby formations that occur throughout the high mountains of Brazil, usually formed by structurally resistant rocks, little affected by late tectonics, and strongly eroded and weathered under long term geological
stability. RGC is closely associated with high altitude landsurfaces,...
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... 3b, 4b, 5b) and converged towards stress tolerance. This indicates the prevalence of low-yielding, functionally similar species 93,94 . Coexistence in these conditions is likely due to slight differences in functional traits and specific adaptations in response to each environmental factor 1,95,96 followed by environmental filtering 97 . ...
Plant community assembly is the outcome of long-term evolutionary events (evident as taxonomic diversity; TD) and immediate adaptive fitness (functional diversity; FD); a balance expected to shift in favour of FD in ‘harsh’ habitats under intense selection pressures. We compared TD and FD responses along climatic and edaphic gradients for communities of two species (Dianthus pseudocrinitus and D. polylepis) endemic to the montane steppes of the Khorassan-Kopet Dagh floristic province, NE Iran. 75 plots at 15 sites were used to relate TD and FD to environmental gradients. In general, greater TD was associated with variation in soil factors (potassium, lime, organic matter contents), whereas FD was constrained by aridity (drought adaptation). Crucially, even plant communities hosting different subspecies of D. polylepis responded differently to aridity: D. polylepis subsp. binaludensis communities included a variety of broadly stress-tolerant taxa with no clear environmental response, but TD of D. polylepis subsp. polylepis communities was directly related to precipitation, with consistently low FD reflecting a few highly specialized stress-tolerators. Integrating taxonomic and functional diversity metrics is essential to understand the communities hosting even extremely closely related taxa, which respond idiosyncratically to climate and soil gradients.
... Canga can be found exposed at the surface or covered by Mesozoic or Cenozoic rubble (Monteiro et al., 2018a). Pockets of thicker soil cover are common in depressions where organic matter accumulates (Nunes et al., 2015). These canga soils are nutrient-poor, relatively acidic (pH <5) and offer poor water retention and mechanical support for plants (Messias et al., 2013;Fernandes, 2016). ...
... There are two vegetation types in Serra dos Carajás, humid evergreen tropical forests (HETF), which occur on the slopes of the plateau, interrupted by canga vegetation on the plateau at 600-800 m altitude ( Figure 1B), which colonizes the lateritic crusts under edaphic conditions [15,30]. Several geoenvironments are described for canga areas, such as rupestrian and swampy fields, flat grasslands associated with sinkholes, active lakes, dry forests over degraded cangas, and open forests over aluminous-rich lateritic covers [31][32][33][34]. ...
Serra dos Carajás harbors a unique open plant community in Amazonia, known as canga vegetation, with several endemic species coexisting with the potential threat of large-scale iron ore mining. In this sense, Convolvulaceae occur in a wide variety of canga geoenvironments with multiple flower visitors, but the scarcity of data on its pollen morphology prevents the correct association between Convolvulaceae species with floral visitors, as well as the precise identification of their habitats throughout the Quaternary. Therefore, this study aims to contribute to the taxonomic knowledge and refinement of the identification of insect-plant networks of endangered plants, including Ipomoea cavalcantei. Pollen grains were examined by light and scanning electron microscopy (LM and SEM, respectively), and the morphological parameters obtained were statistically analyzed using principal component analysis. Therefore, all species were differentiated based on aperture types and exine ornamentation. The set of morphological characters indicated that echinae morphology, easily identified under LM, was effective for the identification of Ipomoea species. This work represents the first robust pollen database for a precise identification at the species level of Convolvulaceae from southeastern Amazonian cangas.
... In addition, these highlands are very susceptible to frequent, severe fire regimes that are an integral part of RGC ecosystems. It plays a key role in RGC development and survival of plants since it controls the cycles of destruction, regeneration, maturation and reproduction, hence having a major influence on the selective pressure that allowed the enormous diversity to emerge in Rupestrian grassland (Grime 2001;Viana and Lombardi 2007;Jacobi et al. 2008;Nunes et al. 2015;Alves et al. 2014;Schaefer et al. 2016). The harsh environmental conditions, added to the rugged mountainous relief of RGC, provide a complex and varied combination of substrates, slope, altitude and edaphic condition, jointly promoting species diversification through niche specialization. ...
The Restinga is one of the ecosystems of the Atlantic Rainforest biome in Brazil. It is characterized by extremely nutrient-poor soils formed in sandy coastal sediments from the Quaternary age. The highly dynamic environment of sandy coasts causes landforms with different microrelief. This, in combination with the poor and harsh conditions strongly influence both vegetation composition and ecological succession. Consequently soil formation and vegetation has remarkable variation at short distances within the Restinga ecosystem. This variation strongly depends on (i) geomorphological evolution (deposition/ erosion and age), (ii) particle size of the sediment (sand or clay), (iii) drainage conditions, and (iv) organic matter inputs. Soils from the Restinga ecosystem include Espodossolos (Podzols), Neossolos Quartzarênicos (Arenosols), Organossolos (Histosols), and Gleissolos (Gleysols). However, poorly drained Espodossolos (Podzols) dominate this forested landscape due to the low and flat relief of the shoreline and large amounts of dissolved organic matter (DOM) produced upon decomposition of litter and roots in H, O, and A horizons. The morphology of Espodossolos in the Restinga ecosystem is complex, with a large short-distance variability in depths and shapes of the E- and B-horizons. In order to interpret soil-forming processes in the context of the landscape, transects of related profiles are studied in detail in the different geomorphic units. We connect soil morphology, micromorphology, organic matter chemistry, and microbiology with geomorphology at the ecosystem level.KeywordsTropical podzolBrazilian coastal plainPodzolizationPodzol morphologyPodzol micromorphologyBh degradationIchnofossil
... In addition, these highlands are very susceptible to frequent, severe fire regimes that are an integral part of RGC ecosystems. It plays a key role in RGC development and survival of plants since it controls the cycles of destruction, regeneration, maturation and reproduction, hence having a major influence on the selective pressure that allowed the enormous diversity to emerge in Rupestrian grassland (Grime 2001;Viana and Lombardi 2007;Jacobi et al. 2008;Nunes et al. 2015;Alves et al. 2014;Schaefer et al. 2016). The harsh environmental conditions, added to the rugged mountainous relief of RGC, provide a complex and varied combination of substrates, slope, altitude and edaphic condition, jointly promoting species diversification through niche specialization. ...
The Pantanal is a large tectonic depression located between the Andean slopes and the Brazilian Central Plateau, and the largest continental wetland worldwide, with great biodiversity and pedodiversity, driven by alternating cycles of flood and drought. In this rich Brazilian biome, subtle changes in relief and hydrological condition change soil properties, and affect the distribution of the highly diverse flora and fauna. The wetland soils of Pantanal are closely related to the nature of sediments, and vary according to changes in erosion and deposition/sedimentation rates. Depending on the amount of sand, primary minerals and watertable level, many different types of soils are formed. Quaternary Climatic changes associated with various glacial/interglacial periods occurred in the region, allowing changing pedoclimates with contrasting soil formation processes. The pedoenvironments and soils present in the Pantanal subregions strongly vary according to small topographical variations. Altimetric differences, even a few centimeters, have great influence in soil formation, determining the flood and drought periods at different parts of the landscape. Some soil characteristics also influence the internal flow of water, both vertical and lateral. These differences result in varying intensities of hydromorphism, present in all soils of Pantanal. Even at the highest landscape, soils show signs of hydromorphism, identified by the presence of grayish colors, and Fe3+ reduction process. Paludization, gleying, laterization (plinthite formation), solodization, salinization, argilluviation and podzolization are common pedogenic processes in Pantanal, and are strongly driven by the flooding regime. The main soils in Pantanal are (in decreasing order of total area): Planossolos Nátricos (23%) > Plintossolos (21%) > Espodossolos Ferrilúvicos (19%) > Planossolos Háplicos (11,8%) > Gleissolos (11,7%) > Vertissolos (5,8%) > Argissolos Vermelho-Amarelos (4,8%) > Other minor soils (Neossolos Litólicos, Neossolos Quartzarênicos, Chernossolos Argilúvicos, Neossolos Flúvicos, all with less than 5% in total). The Pantanal wetlands, one of the richest biomes in the neotropics, are under severe threat of vegetation loss and widespread burning due to the intensification of land use, with replacement of the traditional cattle ranching, and climate changes.KeywordsBrazilian pedologyInundated Savanna soilsTropical pedologyTropical wetlandsParaguay River basinNeotropical soils
... In addition, these highlands are very susceptible to frequent, severe fire regimes that are an integral part of RGC ecosystems. It plays a key role in RGC development and survival of plants since it controls the cycles of destruction, regeneration, maturation and reproduction, hence having a major influence on the selective pressure that allowed the enormous diversity to emerge in Rupestrian grassland (Grime 2001;Viana and Lombardi 2007;Jacobi et al. 2008;Nunes et al. 2015;Alves et al. 2014;Schaefer et al. 2016). The harsh environmental conditions, added to the rugged mountainous relief of RGC, provide a complex and varied combination of substrates, slope, altitude and edaphic condition, jointly promoting species diversification through niche specialization. ...
The Brazilian Amazonia region can be conveniently separated into 11 sectors, which represent large pedoenvironments at a continental scale. In a global panorama of the region, from this simplified and useful division, there is a high pedodiversity in the Amazon, despite the predominantly monotonous landforms, at macroscale. Soils of the Sedimentary Basins vary according to strong geological-structural control, coincident with the division of the sub-basins. Close to the Andes fold belt, soils of the Acre Basin, above the Iquitos Arch, have an Andean influence and are mostly young (Cambissolos, Luvissolos, and Argissolos), eutrophic, and high-activity clay. However, the aluminic character is very common. Between the Iquitos and Purus Archs, in the Solimões or Upper Amazonas basin, soils have Plinthite to varying degrees (Plintossolos and Argissolos), but mostly dystrophic. Downstream the Purus Arch to the Monte Alegre Arch, the mid-Amazon basin is strongly associated with Latossolos or Argissolos (always dystrophic), usually yellowish, derived from the pre-weathered Alter do Chão or Belterra Formations. At the low Amazon and Marajó island, under the influence of strong marine tides and by the gigantic sedimentary and hydrological load of the great Amazon river, extensive floodplains have Neossolos Flúvicos, Gleissolos, Plintossolos, and Planossolos. In the crystalline basement rocks of the Amazon Craton, gently dissected landforms reveal dominance of Argissolos or Latossolos (yellow and red-yellow), and generally dystrophic, except where mafic rocks occur. The floodplain soils of the tributaries are almost always dystrophic. The presence of petroplinthite in shallow soils under wet climates suggests that they formed under past climates much drier than the present ones. Anthropogenic soils (Indian Black Earths), with high levels of SOM, Available P, and CEC, occur frequently not only on the bluffs above the floodplain on well-drained lands of the Amazon region, but also on the Várzea floodplain, as buried paleosols. The Roraima and Rondônia Highlands have varying shallow or deep, dystrophic or eutrophic soils, depending on landforms and lithology. A few high-fertility soils, derived from mafic rocks, occur in both highland regions and are usually intensively cultivated. Sandy soils resulting from the extreme podzolization, with the formation of deep, acidic and chemically poor Espodossolos, are characteristic of the Rio Negro Basin. They occur in extensive flat and low-lying plains, under Campinarana vegetation. These extensive Tropical Podzols were formed by the clay destruction of a previous Latossolos mantle under super humid climates. Also, Savanna islands (cerrado, campos) occur throughout Amazonia, and are mostly associated with poorly drained or imperfectly drained soils, but may also occur in higher ground (yellow Latossolos), impermeable parent materials (Monte Alegre) or sandy soils (Alter from the ground). They are floristically much poorer, compared to the core savannas of the Central Plateau. The Amazon/Solimões River floodplains, together with the Purus and Juruá rivers, constitute the largest eutrophic alluvial space in Brazil, and one of the most extensive worldwide, making the use and sustainable cultivation virtually continuous since pre-Columbian times.KeywordsAmazon soilsRainforest soilsAmazon Forest soilsTropical pedologyAmazonian landscapesNeotropical soils
... In addition, these highlands are very susceptible to frequent, severe fire regimes that are an integral part of RGC ecosystems. It plays a key role in RGC development and survival of plants since it controls the cycles of destruction, regeneration, maturation and reproduction, hence having a major influence on the selective pressure that allowed the enormous diversity to emerge in Rupestrian grassland (Grime 2001;Viana and Lombardi 2007;Jacobi et al. 2008;Nunes et al. 2015;Alves et al. 2014;Schaefer et al. 2016). The harsh environmental conditions, added to the rugged mountainous relief of RGC, provide a complex and varied combination of substrates, slope, altitude and edaphic condition, jointly promoting species diversification through niche specialization. ...
Cerrados are the savanna-like vegetation of central Brazil. The first accounts on Cerrado soils date back to the 1950´s, but increasing knowledge about soil characteristics under this vegetation derived from the outstanding expansion of modern agriculture on mostly low fertility, acid and deep cerrado soils. We report the current knowledge about soils under Cerrado vegetation within the Brazilian territory, emphasizing its genesis and classification considering the Brazilian System of Classification of Soils-SiBCS, and land use aspects. In central Brazil, the Cerrado Biome covers extensive areas of Goiás, Distrito Federal, Tocantins, Bahia, Maranhão, Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Piauí, Rondônia and São Paulo states, and many disjunct, isolated areas across Brazil, occupying more than 2,000,000 km2. Geomorphologically, cerrados are mainly found on extensive highland plateaus, but also occur in gently dissected to hilly landforms. Most Cerrado soils are dystrophic (base saturation less than 50%), and the few eutrophic soils identified always present strong limitations to a normal plant development, either physical or chemical. With the exception of clayey Latossolos of high plateaus, practically all other soils, besides the low natural fertility, present some physical limitations to plant development, such as: presence of abundant gravels and/or concretions (petroplinthite, mainly); high water table; high stoniness or rockiness; low water holding capacity; sandy or medium light texture; shallow depths. The Latossolos with clayey texture of the Central Tablelands and Plateaus are the preferred soils for high tech grain production, and commonly have an acric character, with positive ΔpH, in addition to the low natural fertility. Other Latossolos under Cerrado are either (i) of medium texture and low water retention capacity, or (ii) are clayey with very low CEC. The high aluminum saturation (>50%), postulated by pioneer authors as a conditioning factor of the Cerrado vegetation is controversial, and has not been confirmed, since many soil surveys throughout Brazil revealed the occurrence of Cerrado vegetation on soils without high Al saturation (such as the acric types). It is consensual that Cerrado occurrence is more related to soil water availability than to soil fertility, even though Cerrado on waterlogged soils are also found. The Central Brazilian Plateau, representing the core area of Cerrado, is part of a very old and stable landmass, unaffected by marine invasions and glaciers, where widespread planation and erosion allowed a very extensive smooth surface to develop. Most vegetation in the Central Plateau has been subjected to Quaternary climate oscillations, from semiarid climates during glacial periods, to humid climates during interglacials. The common occurrence of Cerrado in the Central Plateau High Tablelands (Chapadas) is closely associated with deep Latossolos of clayey or very clayey texture. However, different types of Cerrado, from Grassy to Woodland (Cerradão), are found, and such variations cannot be explained solely by chemical or physical attributes, but rather by external, anthropogenic factors, such as burning intensity, cattle grazing and selective clearing for wood or charcoal production, besides topographical and hydrological attributes. Despite the general low fertility, high productivity and high yields of soya, sugarcane, eucalyptus, rice, wheat, cotton and maize are commonplace in the cerrados, highlighting the robust knowledge Brazil attained in converting low fertility soil into areas where two successive crops are now possible. However, conservation issues are now pressing, since Cerrado vegetation, a major biodiversity hotspot in the neotropics, is vanishing at alarming speed.KeywordsCerrado soilsSavana soilsBrazilian Central plateauAcid soilsAluminum toxicityTropical pedologyNeotropical soilsDeep weathered soils
... In addition, these highlands are very susceptible to frequent, severe fire regimes that are an integral part of RGC ecosystems. It plays a key role in RGC development and survival of plants since it controls the cycles of destruction, regeneration, maturation and reproduction, hence having a major influence on the selective pressure that allowed the enormous diversity to emerge in Rupestrian grassland (Grime 2001;Viana and Lombardi 2007;Jacobi et al. 2008;Nunes et al. 2015;Schaefer 2013Alves et al. 2014;Schaefer et al. 2016). The harsh environmental conditions, added to the rugged mountainous relief of RGC, provide a complex and varied combination of substrates, slope, altitude and edaphic condition, jointly promoting species diversification through niche specialization. ...
Although there is a large difference in substrate and climate, all Campos Rupestres share common characteristics, which allow them to be grouped as a Rupestrian Grasslands Complex (RGC): shallow and extremely oligotrophic soils, high incidence of solar radiation, geographic isolation, large daily temperature range, water deficit, wind exposure and altitudes generally above 900 m. In addition, these highlands are very susceptible to frequent, severe fire regimes that are an integral part of RGC ecosystems. Soils associated with these Campos Rupestres rocky highlands occur in many different lithologies, but mostly on Quartzites, Itabirites and Granitic rocks. They have low nutrient content (dystrophic), yellowish/brownish hues, coarse texture, high exchangeable aluminum levels and dark-colored surface horizons due to organic matter accumulation. The low level of soil fertility is related to nutrient losses by leaching, enhanced by high drainage, and low nutrient content of the parent material, especially in quartzite or itabirite, or deep saprolite. The soils have an acid reaction, favoring the dissolution of kaolinite and aluminosilicates, and Al3+ saturates the exchange complex. Exchangeable Al3+ levels are higher in soils associated with granitic/gneiss outcrops, especially in the Serra da Mantiqueira, since igneous rocks contain high amounts of aluminum and iron, compared with Quartzites. The extremely low fertility status of these soils conditioned the development of survival strategies by the vegetation, involving physiological and morphological adaptations. Some nutrients, particularly P, which is extremely limiting for plant development, show negligible amounts in some soils. In igneous rock outcrops, unlike Quartzites, despite the generalized lack of P in the soil, the soils still maintain some reserve of this element. In quartzitic outcrops, where rock apatite is absent, P uptake mechanisms are even more remarkable, and are related to biological symbiosis. In these highland environments, irrespective of the predominant lithology, biogeochemical cycling of nutrients is essential for vegetation maintenance. The highest nutrient levels are always observed in surface, organic matter-rich horizons. The concentration of thin roots in the soil surface, forming a continuous root-carpet, is a commonly verified mechanism to reduce nutrient losses. Soils associated with RGC (Campos Rupestres) show high amounts of fibric organic material, showing low bulk density, due to the accumulation of light organic matter derived from non-decomposed vegetal residues. However, most of the organic substances in soils associated with rocky outcrops are strongly humified, with a predominance of the humic acid fraction. Fulvic acid content is high, indicating high mobility of organic substances in these pedoenvironments. The humic acids are responsible for most of the cation exchange capacity (CEC) and water retention capacity of these soils, especially in the organic materials, where clay minerals are virtually absent (Benites et al. 2003a). In conclusion, the range of soil fertility for RGC soils is close to the lower detection limit for most major nutrients, and physical, rather than chemical, differences exist among the soils. The low biomass status of this vegetation is closely linked to a very low supply of nutrients (particularly P), rather than Al toxicity, since high biomass forest occurs in soils with even greater Al3+ levels in Brazil. The recognition of the unique soil and vegetation features of Campos Rupestres should recommend its placement as an individual biome in Brazil, with urgent needs for conservation.KeywordsRocky outcropsEspinhaço Range soilsBrazilian pedologyHighland soilsTropical pedologyNeotropical soils
... Thus, these crusts may produce thicker soils (i.e., Ferrasols/Oxisols). The detrital and structured crusts have some peculiar characteristics, including shallow, patchy and acidic soils, with low water retention and nutrient availability and high insolation and temperature [49,50], which allowed the widespread development of canga vegetation and hindered the colonization of tree species (Figure 3a-d), such as SDF and HETF [8,49]. This interpretation is supported by the high δ 13 C values of the canga vegetation compared to soils in neotropical forests, which are related to more pronounced water shortages in cangas than forests [51]. ...
... The edaphic conditions developed in the plateaus of the Carajás region lead to the formation of islands of canga plants that are structurally and compositionally different from the surrounding matrix [8,49]. The pollen signal of the HETF may overlap the signal The filled lakes (R1, R2, R4, R5, ST02, LB3, LB4 and LTM2), are mainly composed of organic matter derived from freshwater DOC, C3 plants and algae, while canga plants are less represented or their signals are diluted by the other organic sources (Figure 7c,d). ...
... The edaphic conditions developed in the plateaus of the Carajás region lead to the formation of islands of canga plants that are structurally and compositionally different from the surrounding matrix [8,49]. The pollen signal of the HETF may overlap the signal of comparatively smaller savanna areas due to high production and enhanced dispersal capacity, but this is not always true. ...
The upland lakes (ULs) in Carajás, southeastern Amazonia, have been extensively studied with respect to their high-resolution structural geology, geomorphology, stratigraphy, multielement and isotope geochemistry, palynology and limnology. These studies have generated large multiproxy datasets, which were integrated in this review to explain the formation and evolution of the ULs. These ULs evolved during the Pliocene–Pleistocene periods through several episodes of a subsidence of the lateritic crust (canga) promoted by fault reactivation. The resulting ULs were filled under wet/dry and warm/cool paleoclimatic conditions during the Pleistocene period. The multielement geochemical signature indicates that the detrital sediments of these ULs were predominantly derived from weathered canga and ferruginous soils, while the sedimentary organic matter came from autochthonous (siliceous sponge spicules, algae, macrophytes) and allochthonous (C3/C4 canga and forest plants and freshwater dissolved organic carbon) sources. Modern pollen rain suggests that even small ULs can record both the influence of canga vegetation and forest signals; thus, they can serve as reliable sites to provide a record of vegetation history. The integrated data from the sedimentary cores indicate that the active ULs have never dried up during the last 50 ka cal BP. However, subaerial exposure occurred in filled ULs, such as the Tarzan mountain range during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and the Bocaína and S11 mountain ranges in the mid-Holocene period, due to the drier conditions. Considering the organic proxies, the expansion of C4 plants has been observed in the S11 and Tarzan ULs during dry events. Extensive precipitation of siderite in UL deposits during the LGM indicated drier paleoenvironmental conditions, interrupting the predominantly wet conditions. However, there is no evidence of widespread forest replacement by savanna in the Carajás plateau of southeastern Amazonia during the late Pleistocene and Holocene.
... Understory vegetation influences soil nutrient availability by altering the input of compounds and organic matter in the form of litter and root exudates [23]. Changes in soil nutrient availability caused by vegetation [24] have an impact on nutrient absorption and assimilation by vegetation [25]. Thus, the relationship between the interaction of soil physicochemical properties and plant diversity is an important issue explored in ecology [26]. ...
Understory vegetation affects the richness and stability of urban forest ecosystems. To investigate the influence of soil physicochemical properties on the diversity of understory plants in urban forests, this study used 30 urban forest communities in the Beijing Plain area as the research object and analyzed the correlation between understory plant diversity and soil factors by correlation analysis. Furthermore, pH, soil bulk density (SBD), total soil porosity (TSP), soil water content (SWC), soil organic carbon (SOC), soil organic matter (SOM), total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), effective phosphorous (AP), and effective potassium (AK) were determined in this study. The Shannon diversity index (H’), Pielou evenness index (E), Simpson dominance index (C), and Margalef richness index (DMG) of understory plants were calculated. The soil nutrient contents and the understory plant diversity indices of the different community types showed significant differences. There was a strong correlation between soil properties and the diversity index of understory vegetation. SOM and SOC were the main factors affecting the Shannon-Wiener index, Pielou index, Simpson index, and Margalef richness index of the understory plants. We conclude that soil properties were one of the primary drivers of the formation of understory vegetation diversity. The results of the study can provide scientific guidance for the management of urban forests.
