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Population density map of the northern Egypt's Mediterranean governorates (persons per km 2 ) generated from data of 2009 census (Table 2). The bold numbers (1–21) referred to names of governorates: 1 0 Matruh, 2 0 Alexandria, 3 0 Beheira, 4 0 Kafr El-Sheikh, 5 0 Damietta, 6 0 Dakahlia, 7 0 Elkalyobia, 8 0 El Sharkia, 9 0 Port Said, 10 0 Ismailia, 11 0 North Sinai, 12 0 South Sinai, 13 0 Suez, 14 0 Red Sea, 15 0 Helwan, 16 0 Cairo, 17 0 Monofia, 18 0 El Gharbia, 19 0 El Giza, 20 0 El Fayum, and 21 0 Banyswef
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Consequence of the sea level rise (SLR) on the Mediterranean coastal areas in Egypt, particularly the Nile River Delta, has become an issue of major concern to Egypt’s population and the government. Previous publications disregard the entire Mediterranean coast of Egypt as an integral unit subject to the impacts of the SLR. This study aims to analy...
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... characterizing Sinai, the western and eastern deserts. The governorates of Matruh and north Sinai have the lowest density populated areas (>25 persons/km 2 ). The most densely populated areas (500-2,000 persons/km 2 ) are in Alexandria and the Delta region "Kafr El Sheikh and Dakahleya" compared with Beheira and Port Said (300-500 persons/km 2 ) (Fig. 3). Although there will be an evident negative impact of climate change and SLR on the population of Egypt's Mediterranean coastal area, it is quite difficult to quantify these impacts based on the available information on the precise distribution of population following the SLR assumptions, social and biophysical vulnerabilities. ...
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... beaches are mainly developed in the saddles or embayments between the Nile Delta promontories (Frihy and Komar 1993). These beaches protrude seaward continually at Abu Khashaba, the central part of Abu Qir Bay, Gamasa sink and the Tineh plain (Fig. 5 T3, T4, T8, T10). They are relatively stable as long as the building up process "accretion" is maintained with higher rates than that of the erosion. Other local accretion is observed at Burullus inlet jetty, Damietta harbor breakwaters and Port Said ...
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... Many studies have highlighted the potential of remote sensing approaches in coastal delineation and mapping of geomorphological changes for various shoreline conditions worldwide. These studies have been conducted in different regions, including Bangladesh (Frihy and El-Sayed 2013;Kalivas et al. 2003) and along the coastline areas of Mediterranean Sea (Ghosh et al. 2015;Petropoulos et al. 2015;Besset et al. 2017). The escalation of coastal intrusion and the impacts of climate change have resulted in salinity affecting agricultural practices across various regions worldwide, including the third-largest Mekong Delta of Vietnam (S. ...
... However, following the construction of canals, barrages, and dams upstream of the Indus River System (IRS), a gradual decline in water flow and sediment discharge has occurred. The rapid construction of upstream barrages and dams, as shown in Figure S8 in supplementary material, has emerged as a major factor contributing to land erosion and rising salinity issues from the Arabian Sea, consistent with previous studies (Aeman et al. 2023;Frihy and El-Sayed 2013). This significant reduction in sedimentation processes along the Indus River, resulting from human interventions over the past half-century, has led to numerous onshore and offshore geomorphic changes. ...
Insufficient freshwater recharge and climate change resulted in seawater intrusion in most of the coastal aquifers in Pakistan. Coastal aquifers represent diverse landcover types with varying spectral properties, making it challenging to extract information about their state hence, such investigation requires a combination of geospatial tools. This study aims to monitor erosion along the major coastal aquifers of Pakistan and propose an approach that combines data fusion into the machine and deep learning image segmentation architectures for the erosion and accretion assessment in seascapes. The analysis demonstrated the image segmentation U-Net with EfficientNet backbone achieved the highest F1 score of 0.93, while ResNet101 achieved the lowest F1 score of 0.77. Resultant erosion maps indicated that Sandspit experiencing erosion at 3.14 km² area. Indus delta is showing erosion, approximately 143 km² of land over the past 30 years. Sonmiani has undergone substantial erosion with 52.2 km² land. Miani Hor has experienced erosion up to 298 km², Bhuri creek has eroded over 4.11 km², east Phitii creek over 3.30 km², and Waddi creek over 3.082 km² land. Tummi creek demonstrates erosion, at 7.12 km² of land, and East Khalri creek near Keti Bandar has undergone a measured loss of 5.2 km² land linked with quantified reduction in the vertical sediment flow from 50 (billion cubic meters) to 10 BCM. Our analysis suggests that intense erosions are primarily a result of reduced sediment flow and climate change. Addressing this issue needs to be prioritized coastal management and climate change mitigation framework in Pakistan to safeguard communities. Leveraging emerging solutions, such as loss and damage financing and the integration of nature-based solutions (NbS), should be prioritized for the revival of the coastal aquifers.
... The comparatively heavy rains and low temperatures are the main distinguishing characteristics, which in turn sustain a broad variety of endemic species and the diversity of plants (Abdelaal et al. 2020). These findings agree to some extent with those of Zahran et al. (1990), Willis (2009) andFrihy andEl-Sayed (2013). ...
... The comparatively heavy rains and low temperatures are the main distinguishing characteristics, which in turn sustain a broad variety of endemic species and the diversity of plants (Abdelaal et al. 2020). These findings agree to some extent with those of Zahran et al. (1990), Willis (2009) andFrihy andEl-Sayed (2013). ...
An effective method for identifying species and evaluating the effects of changes caused by humans on specific species is the application of species distribution modelling (SDM) in desert environments. The fact that many dry lands and deserts throughout the world are situated in inhospitable regions may be the reason why such applications are still infrequently used on plant species in Egypt's Mediterranean region. Henceforth, the current study aims to map species richness and weighted endemism of Mediterranean endemics in the Mareotis subsector in Egypt and determine the environmental variables influencing distribution of these taxa. We produced a map of species distribution range using Ensemble SDMs. Further, stacked machine learning ensemble models derived from Random Forest (RF) and MaxEnt models were applied on 382 Mediter-ranean endemics distribution data to estimate and map diversity and endemism using two indices: species richness (SR) and weighted endemism index (WEI). The best models for ensemble modelling were chosen based on Kappa values and the Area Under the Receiver Operator Curve (AUC). The results showed that the models had a good predictive ability (Area Under the Curve (AUC) for all SDMs was > 0.75), indicating high accuracy in forecasting the potential geographic distribution of Mediterranean endemics. The main bioclimatic variables that impacted potential distributions of most species were wind speed, elevation and minimum temperature of coldest month. According to our models, six hotspots were determined for Mediterranean endemics in the present study. The highest species richness was recorded in Sallum, Matrouh wadis and Omayed, followed by Burg El-Arab, Ras El-Hekma and Lake Mariut. Indeed, species richness and endemism hotspots are promising areas for conservation planning. This study can help shape policy and mitigation efforts to protect and preserve Mediterranean endemics in the coastal desert of Egypt. These hotspots should be focused on by policy makers and stake-holders and declared as protectorates in the region. The largest number of species per area would be protected by focusing primarily on the hotspots with high species richness.
... Additionally, results can be illustrated using maps with different colors. Figures 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34, 35 represent the outputs of SimCLIM, with the graphs displaying data extracted in the form of numbers from CSV files and manipulated using Microsoft Excel. The maps serve as illustrative outcomes of the work and are produced using SimCLIM as a part of this study. ...
... These findings align with previous studies by Domroes and El-Tantawi 9 , Hasanean and Abdel Basset 21 , Kareem et al. 14 , and and Shaltout et al. 12,13 . Forecasting of air temperature Figures 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35 illustrate the monthly averages of Tmin, Tmean, and Tmax for both the base period and the projected averages of Tmin, Tmean, Tmax, and Tmax downscaled from 40 GCMs. Additionally, they depict the distributions of projected seasonal and annual data for the year 2100 under various Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs). ...
This study evaluates the validity of forecasting air temperature ranges in 2100 using the SimCLIM climate projection model at spatial and temporal scales within the Southern Levantine basin. The model utilized historical air temperature data from 2000 to 2016, collected at seven southeastern Mediterranean stations, as well as 74 climate pattern ensembles integrated within SimCLIM. A combination of 40 global climate models (GCMs) and IPCC AR5 greenhouse gas emissions scenarios embedded in SimCLIM was employed to forecast mean, minimum, and maximum temperatures for 2100.The findings reveal that the average temperature increase in 2100, relative to the representative concentration pathways 2.6, 4.5, 6.0, and 8.5, will range between 0.8–1.17 °C, 1.48–2.0 °C, 2.1–3.8 °C, and 3.9–4.6 °C, respectively. Due to its acceptable accuracy, the SimCLIM model, incorporating 40 GCMs and 74 climate pattern ensembles, is highly recommended for forecasting future climate conditions. The model was evaluated using available temperature records in the study area, yielding a prediction percentage error of 2%, which strongly supports the use of SimCLIM.
... There have been several studies on the vulnerability and risks of climate change over coasts [11,12,[30][31][32]. Models like DIVA (Dynamic Interactive Vulnerability Assessment model), DINAS-COAST (Dynamic and interactive assessment of national, regional, and global vulnerability of coastal zones to climate change and sea-level rise), or the CIAM model (Coastal Impact and Adaptation Model) have also been created, but they have some limitations or use different models, tools, information, or perspectives to those used in the present study [33][34][35]. ...
Climate change is an increasingly critical issue impacting coasts and coast structures, leading to erosion, flooding, sea level rise, etc. These significantly impact not only the environment and society, but also the regional infrastructure and economy. This study focused on assessing the costs associated with climate change along the coast of Catalonia. An innovative tool in Python called GCIFS (Georeferenced Impact Forecast System) was developed for the assessment, which is based on LiDAR measurements, cartography, and online databases to predict future coastlines and economic impacts. The proposed methodology considered unique beach-specific scenarios, and multiple direction and altitude vectors to identify difficult-to-erode areas and existing protections were generated. Seven approaches based on forecasted sea-level rise with and without coastal geomorphology were applied to 262 beaches. Local impact factors and potential protection, using detailed data on infrastructure and building typology, were included in the cost evaluation, resulting in estimated costs by the year 2100 of EUR 8846.00 million for the worst-case scenario, EUR 3587.36 million for a conservative prediction including geomorphology, and EUR 822.67 million for a prediction based on local erosion and geomorphology. It was concluded that 170,676 m of protection structures is required. The selected approach, technologies, and detailed information are critical for an adequate assessment.
... The Nile Delta is a high-risk region with significantly rising sea levels and projected climatic changes. Sea levels are anticipated to rise 18 to 59 cm in the Nile delta by the end of the twenty-first century [15]. This could cause threats to the ecosystem, infrastructure, settlements, and human health [16]. ...
... This is a pattern recorded in other regions of the world. In the Mediterranean region, the most affected areas would be the Nile River delta (Frihy and El-Sayed, 2013), Venice lagoon (Zanchettin et al., 2021), and the low-lying Morocco coast (Snoussi et al., 2008). The southeast Australian coast is a particular vulnerable region, with zones like the Wandandian River delta (Al-Nasrawi et al., 2018), llawarra lake (Al-Nasrawi et al., 2018), and lowlying areas such as Hunter Wetlands National Park (Rayner et al., 2021), which could be affected in the future. ...
The Mexican Atlantic coast is vulnerable to sea level rise due to its low, sandy shorelines with extensive adjacent wetlands. The increasing trends at the regional level are similar to global trends (~3 ± 0.04 mm/year): between 1.8 mm/year in Alvarado, Veracruz, to 3.6 mm/year in Isla Mujeres, Quintana Roo. A synthetic model was applied to Mexican Atlantic coast under two sea level rise scenarios for the year 2100. Our objectives were: 1) to identify potentially floodable zones in the face of a sea level rise of one and two meters on the Mexican Atlantic coast with a synthetic model using SRTM and LiDAR topographic data; 2) to determine vegetation and land use affected in the potentially floodable zones; and 3) quantify the vulnerable human population. With topographic data we identified low areas (one and two meters) to assess potentially floodable zones; these were intersected with data layers of vegetation, land use, and human population. Deltaic zones, coastal lagoons and low-lying areas of the Yucatan Peninsula were regions with the largest potentially floodable surface. In the one-meter sea rise scenario, 581,674 ha were identified as potentially floodable, and 896,151 in the two-meter scenario. The most vulnerable vegetation and land use types were wetlands, such as cattail marshes (tulares; ~29 %) and mangroves (~27 %), as well as cultivated grasslands (~6 %). The indirectly affected coastal population could be approximately 5.5 million in these scenarios (~33 %), and the directly affected population could range between 124,000 and 440,000 (~0.72 and 2.55 %, respectively). These results indicate that there will be strong effects in economic, social, and environmental impacts on the Atlantic coast of Mexico in the event of a one- and two-meters sea level rise. This type of work will enable proposal conservation and adaptation strategies for human populations and coastal cities.
... The protection structures executed in this zone contributed dramatically to controlling erosion processes. Some of the structures identified in this region: breakwaters for four ports (El-Dekhila, Abo Qir, Alexandria, Sidi-Kerair port) to provide safe shipping maneuvering, Nobaria Drain jetties to prevent siltation inside inlet, Al agami-emerged detached breakwaters to dissipate wave energy and helping in advance shoreline, submerged break- water installed in 2006-2008 to the eroded beach along El-Mandara area, groins constructed at El-Chatby, El-Asafra, El-Mandara ( El-Masry, 2022 ;Frihy et al., 2010 ;Frihy and El-Sayed, 2013 ). Nourishment activities are also accomplished periodically by adding desert sand to compensate for sand losses at some affected beaches ( Darwish et al., 2017 ). ...
Coastal erosion is a natural process, that contributed to shaping the Nile Delta shoreline in Egypt over history. The objective of this research is to investigate shoreline changes, accretion, and erosion and to detect particularly vulnerable locations that require immediate attention. Another goal is to assess the efficiency of coastal installations that have been recently implemented along the study area and determine whether they have performed their role to the fullest or need additional modifications. Several Landsat images (TM, ETM+, and OLI) were utilized over 37 years to track the shoreline changes and were analyzed using remote sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS). The digital shoreline analysis system (DSAS) was integrated with the LRR model for assessing historical changes for shorelines from 1985 to 2022 and forecasting future shoreline positions in 2030, 2050, and 2100. Most of the eight zones that make up the Delta region have lately seen the establishment of coastal projects, such as the development of the Abu Qir port's breakwater in 2021. From the results, it was found that the areas around Rosetta promontory, Burullus headland, and Damietta promontory experienced a significant and rapid retreat and with large rates over the study period, with average values of –15.7, –3.25, and –16.8 m/y, respectively. However, both the coast of Alexandria, and Gamasa embayment were subjected to accretion as a prevailing case, with average rates of 2.85, and 4.03 m/y, respectively. Many groins were installed in the east of the Rosetta promontory (zone 3) in 2016 to decrease the erosion process; however, it didn't pay off and could not solve the problem. In contrast, the groins system, which was implemented at the East Kitchener Drain (zone 5) in the same year, lowered erosion rates from 17.6 m/y from 2000 to 2010 to 7 m/y from 2010 to 2022. In 2019, Y-groins built in zone 7, east of Damietta Port, succeeded in slowing rates of erosion. Finally, inlet jetties at El-Gamil (zone 8) were constructed in 2016, resulting in the coastline advancing at 14.7 m/y on average in the period of 2010–2022. The findings of this study confirmed that hard structures are dangerous because they exacerbate the problem of shoreline erosion by disseminating it to the neighboring beaches and acting as an impediment to the movement of longshore sediments. According to the expected future shoreline patterns, it is necessary for authorities to implement both short-term and long-term protective measures to stop the erosion of several areas of the beach.
... Egypt's coasts stretch for more than 3500 km along the Eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea, with distinct coastal zones [2]. Egypt's Mediterranean coast is separated into four primary subareas, according to Frihy and El-Sayed [161], including (1) the coastal field extends northwest from Sallum to Alexandria, (2) Alexandria's coastal area extends further east, from Hammam to Abu Qir, (3) the coastal sector of the Nile Delta extends eastward all the way to Port Said, and (4) the easternmost region of Egypt's Mediterranean coast is the coastal region of North Sinai, which extends from Port Said to Rafah. ...
Global energy demand and consumption have increased as the world's population has grown at a faster rate than industrial activity. The depletion of fossil fuels as well as rising prices for other energy sources are causing us to move toward “environmentally friendly” systems that seek out alternate cost-effective energy sources. Biodiesel made from oil crops has the potential to be a renewable energy source. Biodiesel made from oil crops is a viable renewable alternative to petroleum fuels, but it is insufficient to meet demand. Algae appears to be a viable source of renewable biodiesel that can meet such high worldwide demand. The goal of this chapter is to examine the existing potential and efficiency of algae as a bioenergy source. The advanced manufacturing procedures will also be discussed to determine the most cost-effective method for bigger scale production.
... The first is based on how severe the erosion and accretion as seen in Table 5. However, the second assessment has categorized the sensitivity of the near-shore land use services subjected to accretion and erosion into three levels (high, moderate, and low), Frihy and El-Sayed (2013) and Mahapatra et al. (2015). Based on this categorization, the risk level is calculated for each subregion based on specific parameters of land use adjacent to the nearshore zone (Mahapatra et al., 2015). ...
... The northern coast of Egypt along the Mediterranean Sea is subdivided into four regions: the northwest coastal sector, the Alexandria coastal sector, the Nile Delta coastal sector, and the easternmost sector (Frihy & El-Sayed, 2013). The Nile Delta coastal sector extends 250 km long, from Alexandria to Port Said, along southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, with exposure to natural and anthropogenic threats. ...
The Nile Delta coast extends along the middle region of Egypt’s Mediterranean coast, from Port Said eastward to Alexandria westward. Six short sediment cores were collected across the Nile Delta sector to assess the pollution level of nine heavy metals: Fe, Mn, Zn, Ni, Cu, Cr, Cd, Pb, and Ba. Geochemical analysis of the core samples revealed their sediment features. The predominant sediment was Nile fine-grained sand, with fluctuations in organic matter, carbonate, and heavy metal content. They correspond mainly to an exposure scale to effluent discharges, relevant to anthropogenic factors influencing the coastal ecosystem. The applied environmental indices demonstrated that the western and middle sites of the Nile Delta are classified as unpolluted areas, while the eastern edge, represented by the Port Said core, is identified as polluted area. Variations in the metal contamination level were recognized, ranging from high contamination with Cd to considerable contamination with Cr, and moderate contamination with Zn, Ni, Cu, Mn, and Fe. Port Said site is significantly affected by the anthropogenic impact of industries and port activities. It is recommended to mitigate ecological threats and limit pollution spreading westward to prevent further degradation of the Nile Delta coast.
