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Law enforcement officers are legally justified to utilize force in many situations to bring
suspects to justice, protect others, and for personal defense. However, police training on the
use of force has no single consistent method in the United States to demonstrate the best
response to subject resistance levels, even though many states and indivi...
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This chapter presents a number of significant contributions to the legitimacy and procedural justice literature. Specifically, it explores whether perceptions of procedural justice are more influential than perceptions of police effectiveness in determining Nigerians' legitimacy assessments and expressed willingness to cooperate with police. In add...
Citations
... In most cases, CEWs do not result in significant injuries and are effective in apprehending suspects. It is therefore argued that CEWs contribute to the safe apprehension of individuals (Boehme et al., 2022;Mesloh et al., 2008). Nevertheless, questions persist surrounding CEW usage, such as determining its appropriate placement on a use-of-force continuum, establishing the maximum number of reasonable applications, assessing the potential cognitive impairment of suspects postelectric shock, evaluating the risks of injury or death due to multiple or prolonged CEW usage, examining the potential for overreliance on CEWs instead of lower levels of force, and considering whether the ease of use or the pain inflicted encourages overdependence on CEWs as opposed to hands-on policing (PERF, 2020). ...
Police officers wield the authority to use force in pursuit of lawful objectives, which significantly impacts the public perception of policing legitimacy. Previous research findings continue to document more questions than answers, but the gaps in knowledge are slowly closing. While various actors review the appropriateness of police use of force, the primary sources for the rules of conduct are the courts, specifically the appellate courts and the U.S. Supreme Court. Technological advancements and theoretical developments offer practitioners and researchers innovative avenues to enhance the capacity to examine, forecast, and regulate the application of police force.
... sub-lethal) lub broń do przeznaczenia nieśmiercionośnego (ang. weapon not intended to be lethal) 9 "broń przeciwmaterialna" (ang. anti-materiel technology), której podstawowym przeznaczeniem jest bardziej unieruchamianie pojazdów niż rażenie siły żywej 10 . ...
The main goal of this study is to review modern non-lethal weapons, define and divide them, and characterize the basic types. Much attention was paid to the terminology related to non-lethal weapons used in Polish and foreign literature. Definitions of both the concept of non-lethal weapons and all of their basic groups were also formulated. The most important content contained in the article has been highlighted in the form of drawings.
... With bulky or baggy clothing, a CEW probe may fail to initiate or maintain direct skin contact and thus arcing is required to complete the circuit. [14,15] The completion of the conductive path by the arc allows the lowervoltage main-phase current to then flow thru the circuit. The duration of the pulse is defined as the time from the 1 st downward transition below -100 mA (-60 V with the 600 Ω load) up until the last downward transition below a value of +100 mA (60 V) according to the ANSI (American National Standards Institute) CPLSO-17 (2017) standard. ...
Introduction: A Conducted Electrical Weapon (CEW) deploys 2, or more, probes to conduct current via the body to induce motor-nerve mediated muscle contractions, but the inter-probe resistances can vary and this can affect charge delivery. For this reason, newer generation CEWs such as the TASER® X3, X2 and X26P models have feed-forward control circuits to keep the delivered charge constant regardless of impedance. Our main goal was to explore the load limits for this “charge metering” system. A secondary goal was to evaluate the reliability of the “Pulse Log” stored data to estimate the load resistance.
Methods: We tested 10 units each of the X2 (double shot), X26P, and X26P+ (single-shot) CEW models. We used non-inductive high-voltage resistor assemblies of 50, 200, 400, 600, 1k, 2.5k, 3.5k, 5k, and 10k Ω, a shorted output (nominal 0 Ω), and arcing open-circuits. The Pulse Log data were downloaded to provide the charge value and stimulation and arc voltages for each of the pulses in a 5 s standard discharge cycle.
Results: The average reported raw charge was 65.4 ± 0.2 µC for load resistances < 1 kΩ consistent with specifications for the operation of the feed-forward design. At load resistances ≥ 1 kΩ, the raw charge decreased with increasing load values. Analyses of the Pulse Logs, using a 2-piece multiple regression model, were used to predict all resistances. For the resistance range of 0 – 1 kΩ the average error was 53 Ω; for 1 kΩ – 10 kΩ it was 16%. Muzzle arcing can be detected with a model combining parameter variability and arcing voltage.
Conclusions: The X2, X26P, and X26P+ electrical weapons deliver an average charge of 65 µC with a load resistance < 1 kΩ. For loads ≥ 1 kΩ, the metered charge decreased with increasing loads. The stored pulse-log data for the delivered charge and arc voltage allowed for methodologically-reliable forensic analysis of the load resistance with useful accuracy.
... To achieve this, we took a novel statistical approach to analyze UoF data; one that accounted for the dynamic and violent nature of police interactions with individuals presenting ExDS. Mesloh et al. (2008) found that over half of subjects (56%) in UoF encounters were controlled with one UoF intervention and 85% were subdued by the end of the second application of force. Likewise, Smith and Petrocelli (2002) found that officer tactics were totally effective 74% of the time and at least minimally effective 88% of the time. ...
... Ineffective UoF will likely result in more applications of force and a continued physical struggle, potentially leading to strenuous physical exertion (a risk factor for ARD; Ho et al., 2010;Ruttenber et al., 1999;Vilke et al., 2012). In fact, Mesloh et al. (2008) reported that 78% of the subjects that required multiple UoF interventions continued to resist the officer (e.g. punch, wrestle, pull away). ...
... While mental illness and alcohol intoxication are statistically unrelated to the UoF, drug impairment significantly increase the odds that force will be used (Kaminski et al., 2004). For example, Mesloh et al. (2008) reported that subjects under the influence of substances frequently have a much higher pain tolerance, which requires a greater amount of force to be used against them. Despite this, officers are less likely to be injured when subjects displayed signs of alcohol or drug use (Paoline et al., 2012). ...
This study examined the risk of adverse outcomes during non-fatal encounters with subjects exhibiting features of Excited Delirium Syndrome (ExDS). Data for the study was collected over a five-year period through standardized reporting in a large Canadian law enforcement agency. Consistent with previous research, the presence of six or more of the ten features of ExDS was used to identify a probable case. Force was applied on 10,718 subjects, 197 (1.8%) of which were probable ExDS. Logistic regression were used to model the odds that use of force (UoF) interventions used on subjects in a state of probable ExDS resulted in adverse outcomes. Probable ExDS was one of the most important pre-dictors of adverse outcomes in UoF encounters, even after controlling for associated risk factors. There were significantly higher odds that UoF was ineffective on subjects exhibiting more features of ExDS, resulting in an increased amount of force applied. In contrast, there were significantly lower odds of injury from UoF for individuals exhibiting probable ExDS. Officers, however, were at a higher risk of injury when dealing with those displaying a greater number of features. These results underscore the risks inherent to incidents involving cases of probable ExDS. A greater understanding of such risks may improve response strategies and promote public and police safety. ARTICLE HISTORY
... While national-level estimates are helpful, there is an absence of information about the extent to which these techniques are actually employed by law enforcement officers, upon whom, and with what outcomes. Researchers studying police use of force have been able to document the use of VNR (e.g., Mesloh, Henych, & Wolf, 2008;Kaminski, DiGiovanni, & Downs, 2004) but have generally been limited by its infrequent application and/or limited years of available data. For example, Mesloh et al. (2008) examined 4,303 use of force incidents over a five-year period in the Orlando Police Department and the Orange County Sheriffs' Office, reporting that neck restraints were only used twice. ...
... Researchers studying police use of force have been able to document the use of VNR (e.g., Mesloh, Henych, & Wolf, 2008;Kaminski, DiGiovanni, & Downs, 2004) but have generally been limited by its infrequent application and/or limited years of available data. For example, Mesloh et al. (2008) examined 4,303 use of force incidents over a five-year period in the Orlando Police Department and the Orange County Sheriffs' Office, reporting that neck restraints were only used twice. Kaminski et al. (2004) asked officers in a large Southeastern municipal police department to complete a survey questionnaire for every person arrested and booked during a seven-month period, obtained very high compliance (surveys were completed for 92.5% of arrests during the seven months, or 2,060 arrests), and found that neck restraints were used in just three cases (0.1%). ...
The high-profile deaths of Eric Garner and George Floyd have led to legislative actions banning the use of neck restraints by law enforcement officers. The debates behind these policy changes are important, but they are also entirely lacking in any data on the actual use of neck restraints. We write neither to defend nor condemn the use of neck restraints by law enforcement; rather, we seek to provide information to assist with data-driven decision-making about the technique. We present data from a police department in Washington State where, prior to the May 2021 statewide ban on use of neck restraints, officers had used them quite regularly: 230 times over the previous eight years. Results indicate that neck restraints were typically used when dealing with subjects who were physically non-compliant or actively resisting police prior to the use of force, were associated with use of other physical tactics (rather than weapons), yielded a lower rate of injury to subjects but a higher rate of injury to officers, and resulted in no subject fatalities.
... » Die Etablierung von CEW hat neue medizinische Fragestellungen und Probleme mit sich gebracht Statistische Untersuchungen haben ergeben, dass die Substitution konservativer polizeilicher Waffen (Schlagstock, Pfefferspray, Schusswaffe) durch CEW in bestimmten Situationen zu einer deutlichen Reduktion der Verletzungsrate um bis zu 65 % [1] bzw. 78% [2] geführt hat und die Todesfälle im Rahmen von Polizeieinsätzen um bis zu etwa 66 % [3] reduziert wurden. Dies hat in Europa und in den USA zu einer Änderung polizeilicher Einsatzstrategien geführt [4]. Einer zunehmenden Anwendung von CEW steht ein Rückgang verletzungsintensiverer Überwältigungsmittel gegenüber. ...
... Initial gilt es, nach dem ABCDE-Algorithmus ("airway, breathing, circulation, disability, environment"/Atemweg, Atmung, Kreislauf, neurologisches Defizit, Umgebung) den Status der Vitalparameter zu erheben, um gegebenenfalls lebensrettende Maßnahmen sofort einleiten zu können. Kontrolliert werden sollten vor allem 4 ...
Zusammenfassung
Die medizinische Beurteilung von Verletzungen und potenzieller todesursächlicher Relevanz einer Stromexposition durch eine Elektroschockdistanzwaffe beschränkt sich nicht allein auf die situativen Gegebenheiten und die morphologische Befunderhebung, sondern beinhaltet auch eine intensive Analyse polizeilicher Ermittlungen und die Auswertung von Zeugenaussagen sowie vorangegangener medizinischer Maßnahmen. Insbesondere bei zeitlich relevanter Nähe zwischen Exposition und Todeseintritt muss die Wirkung der übertragenen Stromimpulse in Zusammenhang mit der meist komplexen Einsatzsituation und der medizinischen Vorgeschichte des Geschädigten beurteilt werden. Ein detailliertes Wissen über die konkrete und auch abstrakte Wirkungsweise, Wirksamkeit und Risiken von Elektroschockdistanzwaffen ist hierfür unabdingbar.
... When examining data related to assaults on police officers before and after the introduction of OC spray in this agency, the total number of officer assaults was substantially lower in the post-3 Although tangential to the current review, given our focus on injuries and deaths proximate to OC spray deployments, it is important to point out that the reported effectiveness of OC spray by Edwards and colleagues (1997) is quite high (i.e., 90%) relative to other research on the topic. For example, Mesloh, Henych, and Wolf (2008) analyzed 4,303 use of force reports collected between 2000 and 2005 from two police services and discovered that OC spray was effective in 64% of deployments, which was more effective than baton (45%) and takedowns (41%), but less effective than conducted energy devices (CEDs; 69%). Other studies have revealed that the effectiveness rate of OC spray ranges from between 70.7% (Kaminski et al., 1999) and 73.8% (Brandl and Stroshine, 2017). ...
This literature review assessed research related to injuries and deaths proximate to oleoresin capsicum (OC) spray deployment. Our review of 22 relevant documents suggests that OC spray is often effective and is typically associated with decreased odds of both subject and “deployer” injury. When OC-associated injuries do occur, they consistently appear to be relatively minor. When OC spray is used proximate to a subject’s death, common themes are present. Given the limitations of the research in this area, one must be cautious when speaking to the nature of the relationship between OC spray and injuries or deaths.
... With bulky or baggy clothing, a CEW probe may fail to initiate or maintain direct skin contact and thus arcing is required to complete the circuit. [10,11] The completion of the conductive path by the arc allows the lower-voltage mainphase current to then flow thru the circuit. The duration of the pulse is defined as the time from the 1 st downward transition below -100 mA (-60 V with the 600 Ω load) up until the last downward transition below a value of +100 mA (60 V) according to the ANSI (American National Standards Institute) CPLSO-17 (2017) standard. ...
Introduction: The Conducted Electrical Weapon (CEW) has gained widespread acceptance as the preferred law enforcement intermediate-force control option due to presence-compliance and dramatic decreases in subject injury and mortality. A CEW deploys 2, or more, probes, to conduct current via the body designed to induce motor-nerve mediated muscle contractions, but the inter-probe resistances can vary significantly due to deployment and situational variances, and this can affect charge delivery. For this reason, newer generation CEWs such as the TASER ® X2 and X26P models have feed-forward control circuits to keep the delivered charge independent of load impedance. The primary goal of this study was to explore the load limits for this "charge metering" system. The secondary goal was to evaluate the methodological reliability of the "Pulse Log" stored data to reliably estimate the load resistance for forensic analysis. Methods: We tested 5 units each of the X2 (double shot) model and X26P (single-shot) model. We used non-inductive high-voltage resistor assemblies of 50, 200, 400, 600, 1k, 2.5k, 3.5k and 5k Ω, a shorted output (nominal 0 Ω), and an arcing open-circuit. The Pulse Log data were downloaded to provide the charge value and stimulation and arc voltages for each of the pulses in a 5 s standard delivery cycle. Results: The average reported raw charge was 65 µC for load resistances ≤ 1 kΩ consistent with specifications for the operation of the feed-forward design. At load resistances > 1 kΩ, the raw charge decreased with increasing load values. Analyses of the Pulse Logs, using a 2-piece multiple regression model, predicted all resistances with a root-mean-square (RMS) error of 380 Ω and an average relative (absolute value) error of 18%. For the resistance range seen with skin connections (400-1 kΩ) the RMS error was 34.1 Ω and the average relative error was 7%. Muzzle arcing may be detected by using a statistical model which involves metered charge variability and predicted load resistance. Conclusions: The current model X2 and X26P electrical weapons deliver an average charge of 65 µC with a load resistance up to 1 kΩ. For loads greater than 1 kΩ, the metered charge decreased with increasing loads. The stored pulse-log data for the delivered charge and arc voltage allowed for predictions of the load resistance with useful accuracy, giving forensic value to post-discharge analyses.
... In response to the increasing criticism of former tactics, the police adopted non-lethal weapons such as taser, tear gas, pepper spray or batons. These devices also met with some criticism [8,9] and, fortunately, were not thoroughly adopted. ...
... The use of KIPs and other Less Lethal Weapons have been associated with reduced injury rates among both criminal suspects and officers, as well as with reductions in the use of lethal force. [1][2][3][4] While case reports have documented rare severe or even fatal injuries due to KIPs, their overall injury potential and wounding patterns have not been well characterized in the literature. 2,3,[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20] We sought to measure the rate of significant injury following discharge from a KIP weapon in the course of apprehension from law enforcement, and to further characterize injuries following KIP use. ...
... [1][2][3][4] While case reports have documented rare severe or even fatal injuries due to KIPs, their overall injury potential and wounding patterns have not been well characterized in the literature. 2,3,[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20] We sought to measure the rate of significant injury following discharge from a KIP weapon in the course of apprehension from law enforcement, and to further characterize injuries following KIP use. ...
... Isolated cases reports and small case series of injuries related to KIPs are present in the medical literature, but there is a paucity of systematic documentation of injuries sustained after use of this type of LLW. 2,3,[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20] To our knowledge, this is the first series characterizing detailed injury severity in a series that also tracks all KIP uses by law enforcement, thus allowing calculation of the rate of significant injury. KIP use was rare, occurring in 33 of 2864 police force events (1.2%). ...
