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Polarising light photomicrograph of crystals of laurionite in both the white samples (nos. I and IV), in PPL (a, c) and XPL (b, d)
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The contents of five Iron Age I–II (1200–900 BC) small ceramic vessels similar to ancient kohl pots excavated from the graves of the archaeological site of Estark–Joshaqan, near Kashan in central Iranian plateau, were characterised by optical microscopy (OM), X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD), micro X-Ray fluorescence (μ-XRF), micro-Raman spectroscop...
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This study stems from the need for numismatics to establish whether there may be relationships between a group of 103 bronze coins from the Roman era found in archaeological excavations on the Cesén Mountain (Treviso, Italy) and a group of 117 coins kept at the Museum of Natural History and Archaeology in Montebelluna (Treviso, Italy). The chemists...
Citations
... This is fundamental since the complex (chemical and mineralogical) composition of the paint layers of artworks can be linked to many factors, such as the painting technique, the formation of decay products, including those associated with the environment, and the effect of past conservation operations. This characterisation is extremely useful for detecting historical events and improved understanding of the artistic heritage [8][9][10][11]. ...
Archival resources, a photogrammetric survey, analysis of materials and techniques, and evaluation of the state of conservation were interconnected phases in the interdisciplinary research on the perspective scenery of the Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza. To fill existing gaps related to the history of this unique artefact and to the undocumented retouching of paint layers on the scenery during post-war reconstruction work, a broad analytical approach (optical microscopy, XRPD, SEM–EDX, μFTIR and μRaman) was applied to micro-samples, the selection of which was guided by consolidated geometrical and archival data. The aims were to obtain a characterisation of the pigments and binders and to evaluate the microstratigraphic sequence, the state of conservation of the scenery flats, and the deterioration processes involved. The findings unveiled a discernible variability in the production techniques of the finishes, frequently lacking the classic microstratigraphic sequence associated with the traditional method for painting on wooden panels from the sixteenth century. Moreover, by identifying many pigments that could be used as temporal markers we were able unequivocally to establish, for the first time, that a significant part of the scenery designed by the architect Vincenzo Scamozzi was heavily repainted in the post-WWII period. These analytical results and all the data collected on the artefacts over time were related through an HBIM model, enabling the historical and technical-analytical information to be linked to the geometrical survey and thus to provide guidance for actions based on current and future knowledge for the maintenance and monitoring of the Teatro Olimpico.
... Cosmetic residues from the internal wall of the containers are usually analyzed for chemical composition to infer their production process. For instance, small ceramic vessels found at the Estark-Joshaqan archeological site (1200-900 BCE) resemble ancient kohl pots used as cosmetic containers, and their contents have been identified as powdery white laurionite crystals with a peculiar fibrous shape, as well as lead hydroxy chloride crystals (Holakooei et al. 2022). Similarly, a small bronze artifact from an elite tomb of the Spring and Autumn period (770-476 BCE) was presumed to be a cosmetic container and the residue inside was identified as a mixture of moon milk powder and ruminant adipose fat (Han et al. 2021). ...
The discovery of a grooming set, including two cosmetics, in a Han non-elite tomb, in Shandong, China, highlights the role of cosmetics as carriers of social cultures. This study employed complementary analytical methods, including SEM-EDS, XRD, FTIR, Raman, ELISA, GC-MS, and particle size analysis, to analyze these two cosmetics. The study reveal that one is a lead hydroxycarbonate powder probably used for whitening, while the other was a flesh-colored mica powder containing refined animal fat and plant extract, with an average size of 5μm. The latter was found enclosed in a lacquer container, which could have served as a medicated perfumed concealer. This is the first report of cosmetics used by the non-elite in China 2000 years ago. The use of affordable raw materials and a complex production process suggests that the use of cosmetics had spread from the elite to the non-elite, and the cosmetic industry had developed a regional raw material-workshop-product-consumer model by the Han dynasty at the latest.
... Previously, when discussing the worldwide scenario of lead white use before the Common Era, the Asian region was usually ignored. As shown in Fig. 1, although archeological evidence of cerussite use was reported in southern Europe (Kramberger et al., 2021), Egypt (Beck et al., 2018), Mesopotamia (Hauptmann et al., 2016), Iran (Vidale et al., 2012;Holakooei et al., 2022) and Indus Valley (Vidale et al., 2016), to date, no discovery has been reported in the corresponding period (5th-2nd millennium BCE) in the East Asian region. Clear historical descriptions also helped recover the lead white synthesis in west Eurasia that the corrosion synthetic approach first appeared in the fourth century BCE, which was predominantly used until modern times (Pulsifer, 1888). ...
Lead white is one of the most important pigments in human history, and its synthesis has promoted the development of art and cosmetics. The corrosion approach to synthesize lead white appeared in Greece during the fourth century BCE, and since then lead white has been produced on a large-scale and widely used in painting and cosmetics across Europe. However, when and how synthetic lead white appeared in east Eurasia and whether it was also involved with beauty remained unclear. Here, we investigate some white cosmetic residues from the Liangdaicun site during the eighth century BCE in northern China through FTIR, XRD, SEM-EDS, radioactive and stable carbon isotope analyses. The results show that these residues were the earliest synthesized lead white in the world to date, which was produced by the precipitation method in solution distinct from the corrosion method practiced in ancient Greece. Thus, the synthesis of lead white should have evolved independently in east and west Eurasia during the first millennium BCE. The mass production of synthetic lead white with lower cost promoted the widespread use of white makeup in China and the Mediterranean World, which triggered a cosmetic revolution and highlighted that the pursuit of beauty stimulated the development of chemistry in human history, especially the earliest wet chemistry practice in China.
A small chlorite vial, discovered among numerous artifacts looted and recovered in the Jiroft region of Kerman province, southeastern Iran, contains a deep red cosmetic preparation that is likely a lip-coloring paint or paste. Through analytical research involving XRD (X-ray diffraction), SEM–EDS (scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive spectroscopy), and HPLC–MS (high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry) analyses, the mineral components of the reddish substance were identified as hematite, darkened with manganite and braunite, and traces of galena and anglesite, mixed with vegetal waxes and other organic substances. The mixture, thus observed, bears a striking resemblance to the recipes of contemporary lipsticks. We also report the first radiocarbon date ever obtained from a Bronze age cosmetic in the ancient Near East: results place the pigment in the early 2nd millennium BCE, a date compatible with several mentions of the powerful eastern-iranian civilization of Marḫaši in coeval cuneiform texts of Mesopotamia, as well as with its currently emerging archaeological picture.
A small chlorite vial, discovered among numerous artifacts looted and recovered in the Jiroft region of Kerman province, southeastern Iran, contains a deep red cosmetic preparation that is likely a lip-coloring paint or paste. Through analytical research involving XRD (X-ray diffraction), SEM-EDS (scanning electron microscopy-energy-dispersive spectroscopy), and HPLC-MS (high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry) analyses, the mineral components of the reddish substance were identified as hematite, darkened with manganite and braunite, and traces of galena and anglesite, mixed with vegetal waxes and other organic substances. The mixture, thus observed, bears a striking resemblance to the recipes of contemporary lipsticks. We also report the first radiocarbon date ever obtained from a Bronze age cosmetic in the ancient Near East: results place the pigment in the early 2nd millennium BCE, a date compatible with several mentions of the powerful eastern-iranian civilization of Marḫaši in coeval cuneiform texts of Mesopotamia, as well as with its currently emerging archaeological picture.
