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Plot of the first two PC loading vectors. The labels correspond to pH, chemical and technological parameters
Source publication
Sixteen male red deer (age < 1.5 year), both farm reared and pastured in Slovakia, were assessed with an emphasis on the variability of pH, chemical, structural and textural parameters of their Musculus longissimus thoracis et. lumborum. Pastured deer had higher pH than farmed deer. Regarding chemical compounds, meat from pastured deer contained le...
Context in source publication
Context 1
... eating quality explains a large part of the observed variation for meat quality. All variables are placed in the loading plots ( Fig. 1 and 2). PCA was a very effective statistical tool to determine the quality of food samples [39][40][41] and this fact was also confirmed by our results. ...
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Citations
... There have been numerous studies on the meat quality of different game species harvested worldwide, like wild boar (Sus scrofa) [4][5][6][7], red deer (Cervus elaphus), fallow deer (Dama dama) [8][9][10][11][12][13], European mouflon (Ovis aries musimon) and axis deer (Axis axis) [14,15], impala (Aepyceros melampus) and springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) [16][17][18][19], black bear (Ursus americanus) [20], and beaver (Castor fiber) [21]. ...
... In the present study, the fat content in brown bear meat was higher than that reported for other omnivores [4][5][6][7] and herbivore wild game species [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]. The fat content in meat is highly variable and influenced by many factors, especially diet [1]. ...
Although game meat quality has been under the spotlight in numerous studies, the quality of brown bear (Ursus arctos) meat is still unknown. The aim of this study was to determine the effects of sex and age on the proximate chemical composition, fatty acid profile, and lipid indices of brown bear meat. Nine (n = 9) females and nine (n = 9) males were hunted during the Croatian spring hunting period in 2018. Based on age, bears were divided into two groups: <3 years (n = 9; five females and four males) and 4–6 years (n = 9; four females and five males). For analysis purposes, samples of M.semimembranosus were collected. Age was shown to have an effect on the traits analyzed, while sex-related differences were not found. Brown bear meat has a high fat content (average 6.12%), especially in older bears (~9%). The contents of protein, dry matter, and ash were similar to those of other game species. Monounsaturated fatty acids made up approximately 50% of all fatty acids, with the most abundant being C18:1n-9. More favorable profiles of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids were found in younger bears. The ratio of polyunsaturated and saturated fatty acids was closer to the recommended ratio than the ratio of n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, and lipid indices were favorable. Further research is needed to determine seasonal changes in brown bear meat quality.
... In general, regarding proximate chemical composition, axis deer meat is characterised by a high-protein (>20%) and low-fat content (<2%) similar to the meat of other deer species [1]. Dry matter, protein and ash contents of axis deer meat were similar to those reported for other deer species, though major differences were observed in fat content [11,12,14,[16][17][18]20]. ...
... Cawthorn et al. [20] and Švrčula et al. [12] reported higher fat content in both female and male fallow deer than in the present study. A lower fat content than in the present study was reported in male and female fallow deer by Piaskowska et al. [11] and Daszkiewicz et al. [16], and for male red deer [18]. Bureš et al. [14] found a lower fat content in the meat of male fallow and red deer, while Daszkiewicz et al. [9] reported a similar fat content in female, but lower content in male roe deer. ...
The aim of this study is to examine the effect of sex and age on proximate chemical, fatty acid, amino acid and mineral content of axis deer (Axis axis Erx.) meat. Sixteen (n = 16) animals were hunt-harvested and assigned to groups according sex and age (sub-adult and adult). All analyses were made on m. longissimus thoracis sampled between the 9th and 13th ribs. Minor differences in nutritional composition of axis deer meat were found between analysed sex and age groups. Axis deer meat has a high protein (22.8%) and low fat (1.39%) content. Saturated fatty acids accounted for 44.97% and polyunsaturated for 29.66% of the total fatty acids. Ratios of fatty acids were within the recommended values. Glutamic and aspartic acid were the most abundant non-essential, and lysine and leucine the most common essential amino acids. The ratio of essential to non-essential amino acids was <1. Potassium and phosphorous were the dominant macro-minerals, while iron and zinc were the dominant micro-minerals. The results of this study show that regardless of sex or age, axis deer meat can be considered a good source of basic macro- and micro-nutrients, and can be recommended as a substitute for red meat from domestic animals.
... There are a wide variety of PCA applications in different fields to classify large scattered datasets. Specifically, it has been an effective promising method utilized in meat quality assessment [58][59][60][61][62][63][64] such as beef characterization [48], Classification of Beef and Pork Aroma [59], classification of hairtail fish and pork freshness [60] or freshness assessment of cooked beef during storage [61]. Here, we performed PCA on the whole processed and smoothed absorbance dataset for each measurement time points for both configurations to detect and discriminate sub-stages of freshness levels correlated to chromophores changes over time which might be not recognizable in spectroscopic analysis. ...
Increasing concerns about adulterated meat encouraged industry looking for new non-invasive methods for rapid accurate meat quality assessment. Main meat chromophores (myoglobin, oxy-myoglobin, fat, water, collagen) are characterized by close comparable absorption in visible to near-infrared (NIR) spectral region. Therefore, structural and compositional variations in meat may lead to relative differences in the absorption of light. Utilizing typical fiber-optic probes and integrating sphere, a degradation of pork samples freshness was observed at room temperature referring to the relative changes in absorbance of main meat chromophores. The application of principal component analysis (PCA) used for examination of measured absorbance spectra revealed more detailed sub-stages of freshness, which are not observed by the conventional analysis of the reflectance spectra. The results show a great potential of the combined application of optical-NIR spectroscopy with complementary use of PCA approach for assessing meat quality and monitoring relative absorbance alternation of oxymyoglobin and myoglobin in visible, and fat, water, collagen in NIR spectral ranges.
... There are a wide variety of PCA applications in different fields to classify large scattered datasets. Specifically, it has been an effective promising method utilized in meat quality assessment [58][59][60][61][62][63][64] such as beef characterization [48], Classification of Beef and Pork Aroma [59], classification of hairtail fish and pork freshness [60] or freshness assessment of cooked beef during storage [61]. Here, we performed PCA on the whole processed and smoothed absorbance dataset for each measurement time points for both configurations to detect and discriminate sub-stages of freshness levels correlated to chromophores changes over time which might be not recognizable in spectroscopic analysis. ...
... There is a growing interest in wild game meat by consumers because they perceive them as organic and healthy foods, which is an increasing trend for the general public [1]. In terms of meat quality, deer meat is considered as high in protein, low in intramuscular fat (IMF) and cholesterol, as well as in juiciness and tenderness [2,3]. Even though New Zealand, Australia, China and Canada have a strong tradition of deer farming systems, in Europe most of the production is based on hunted venison with Spain in second place as world producer [4]. ...
The positive perception of deer meat among consumers is growing. Consequently, further efforts are needed to control its meat quality. Specifically, the aim of this study was to search protein biomarkers in connection with tenderness and intramuscular fat (IMF) content of Iberian wild red deer (Cervus elaphus) meat. Twelve venison samples classified as tender, intermediate and tough meat, as well as with different IMF were studied, using quantitative proteomic by SWATH-MS combined with bioinformatic analyses. The study of muscle proteome showed significant differences among these three groups of meat samples, since five differentially abundant proteins (IVD, LAMB1, MYL3, SDHC and SDHA) and six (FABP4, IVD, LAMB1, MYL3, CRYZ and SERPINB6) were strongly correlated with tenderness and IMF, respectively. The proteomic approach provides protein biomarkers linked to venison meat quality and marked changes in proteins related to oxidoreductase complex in skeletal muscle. Significance: Meat tenderness and IMF are major concerns in game meat. The proteomic approach demonstrated a strong correlation between proteins and these quality traits, despite the complexity of samples (wild animals hunted at different ages). Our results suggest that several proteins can be biomarkers and provide a molecular insight.
... Data available in literature indicates that pH at 45 min after slaughtering is around 6.5 for deer meat, falling until 5.4-6.0 after 24 h post mortem and 5.3-5.9 at 36-48 h post mortem (Table 9.5). The pH at 36-48 h post mortem has been considered as the ultimate pH for deer meat (Volpelli et al. 2003;Šnirc et al. 2017;Cawthorn et al. 2018). However, recent studies with wild red deer have showed that pH continues declining between the 48 (5.81-5.89) ...
... Ash content is around 1.1% in deer meat (Volpelli et al. 2003;Šnirc et al. 2017;Daszkiewicz et al. 2015). In general, the most abundant macro-element is K, followed by P and Na (Table 9.12). ...
Among meats alternative to those of traditionally farmed animals, deer has a long history in western culture as a result of being one of the main big game species. Although there is information about that it was farmed in several countries to some extent, in the last 50 years there has been an increasing trend for farming deer, in numbers raising to more than two million worldwide, mainly for meat. In addition, the unique process of annual regeneration of antlers has led to be the main animal species in traditional Chinese medicine (a medicine using all by-products of deer in countries exceeding 2,000 million people). This has highly boosted the demand of deer products and therefore, deer farming and meat production. In fact, the world trade of venison meat has steadily increased to a figure of around two million of tons annually. Deer meat is characterized by its high nutritional and sensory quality and by its positive effects on human health resulting from the low contents of intramuscular fat and cholesterol and the high contents of protein and minerals. The current knowledge about various factors (e.g. nutrition, slaughter age, sex, condition, hunting season) affecting venison and game meat has significantly increased during last decades. This chapter pretends to characterize the carcass and meat quality traits and also the main factors that influence them on deer. Because deer venison matches the idea healthy, natural meats which is in an increasing trend, and the importance for Asians, deer is likely to increase in production and rank first among non-traditional cattle species.
... Some studies have examined the effect of the production system (farming/wild origin) on meat quality from red deer. 17,18 Despite being the more common source of meat, available information about the influence of slaughter age on carcass and meat quality is very scarce for wild red deer. Studies that have assessed the influence of age on carcass and meat characteristics are either very old under wild conditions 19 or have been conducted using farmed deer. ...
... In general, the pH at 36-48 h post mortem has been considered as the ultimate pH for deer meat. 18 16 These differences can probably be due to the fact that the ultimate pH is particularly affected by the slaughtering method. 39 In fact, the great physical effort associated with hunting chase (particularly when deer are chased by dogs as it is most common in Spain) reduces glycogen reserves to an insufficient level to ensure a similar pH decline. ...
... In general, meat from farmed red deer has a higher IMF content than meat from free-range red deer. 18 This effect may probably explain why results from the current study showed lower IMF levels compared to those reported by other authors studying farmed deer, 6,18 who found that values ranged from 0.55% to 0.72% (versus 0.05% to 0.34% observed in the current study for L and H groups, respectively). On the other hand, in the current study, moisture content was similar to the results observed by Šnirc et al. 18 for farmed red deer feeding on pastures. ...
BACKGROUND
Deer‐meat consumption is increasing in several countries based on claims that it is a healthy red meat. This study assessed the effect of slaughter age (low – 26 months and younger; medium – from 27 months to younger than 42 months; and high – 42 months and older) on carcass characteristics and meat physicochemical properties of 150 Iberian wild red deer.
RESULTS
Whole carcass yields of neck, backbone and flank increased (P < 0.001) with age, while yields of shoulder, tenderloin and leg decreased (P < 0.05) with age. The pH measured at 48 h post mortem at 9th rib level was not affected by age, while pH measured at 72 h post mortem at the longissimus thoracis et lumborum muscle decreased (P < 0.05) with age. Meat chemical composition was not affected by slaughter age, except for intramuscular fat (IMF), which increased (P < 0.05) with slaughter age. Finally, cooking loss and shear force were higher (P < 0.05) in meat from older deer.
CONCLUSION
Most characteristics of meat from wild red deer depend on age at slaughter. The greater IMF of meat from older animals may render it more palatable. However, meat shear force also increased with age. Additional studies testing palatability seem to be necessary to evaluate the effects of slaughter age on the sensorial quality of meat from Iberian wild red deer. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry
... The texture profile analysis was performed using TA-XT Plus Texture Analyzer (Stable Micro System, Surrey, UK) according to Šnirc et al. [29] with modifications. The tested sample dimensions were 25 × 25 × 25 mm. ...
Multiple factor analysis was used to examine naturally white, mature and spreadable bryndza cheese varieties. Sensory and physiochemical properties were evaluated during storage in vacuum and non-vacuum packed conditions at 4 ± 2°C. The results of statistical method showed similarity in varieties made from pasteurized ewe milk and mixed bryndza cheese before and after storage at both package conditions (p < 0.05). The statistical method used in the study was a suitable tool for assessing differences in food quality and provided an opportunity to visualize and categorize the results with regard to shelf life and packaging.
... Health conscious consumers have driven upwards the demand for low fat and low cholesterol meat, in turn sparking a new interest in suitable alternatives to traditionally sourced farm meat products. Game meat could address the needs of consumers today and in the coming years as an alternative to meat sourced from domestic animals, because it is characterized by a very good chemical composition (Šnirc, Kral, Ošťádalová, Golian, & Tremlová, 2017), low fat content (Blaška, Gašparík, Šmehýl, & Gondeková, 2016), an optimal ratio of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids (Quaresma et al., 2016;Valencak, Gamsjäger, Ohrnberger, Culbert, & Ruf, 2015), high protein content and protein composition (Okuskhanova et al., 2017), and distinctive taste and aroma (Neethling, Hoffman, & Muller, 2016). In general, from the scientific evidence available it can be concluded that wild game meats are higher-protein, lower-fat, and lower-calorie alternatives to conventional proteins such as chicken, beef, and pork (Strazdiņa, Jemeaļjanovs, & Šterna, 2013). ...
... To achieve this, multivariate statistical methods such as principal component analysis (PCA) can be employed. PCA can be used to extract the important information and reduce a large set of correlated variables to uncorrelated measures, each of which is a particular linear combination of the original quality characteristics, without loss of information (Abdi & Williams, 2010;Karlsson, 1992;Šnirc, Kral, Ošťádalová, Golian, & Tremlová, 2017). for most of the variation in the original data. ...
... for most of the variation in the original data. This helps to identify the most important directions of variability in a large set of heterogeneous dataset (Destefanis, Barge, Brugiapaglia, & Tassone, 2000;Šnirc et al., 2017). The correlation between a component and a variable estimates the information they share. ...
... PC loading shows the relationship between the originally measured variables and the extracted PC (Abdi & Williams, 2010). Thus, PCA is a very effective procedure for obtaining synthetic judgment of meat quality, through the reduction in dimensionality, which permits visual interpretation of the data represented by two-dimensional scatter plots (Destefanis et al., 2000;Šnirc et al., 2017). These scatter plots are called PC loading plots. ...
Principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out to study the relationship between 24 meat quality measurements taken from beef round samples that were injected with curing brines containing gum arabic (1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, and 3%) and soy protein concentrate (SPC) (3.5%) at two injection levels (30% and 35%). The measurements used to describe beef round quality were expressible moisture, moisture content, cook yield, possible injection, achieved gum arabic level in beef round, and protein content, as well as descriptive sensory attributes for flavor, texture, basic tastes, feeling factors, color, and overall acceptability. Several significant correlations were found between beef round quality parameters. The highest significant negative and positive correlations were recorded between color intensity and gray color and between color intensity and brown color, respectively. The first seven principal components (PCs) were extracted explaining over 95% of the total variance. The first PC was characterized by texture attributes (hardness and denseness), feeling factors (chemical taste and chemical burn), and two physicochemical properties (expressible moisture and achieved gum arabic level). Taste attribute (saltiness), physicochemical attributes (cook yield and possible injection), and overall acceptability were useful in defining the second PC, while the third PC was characterized by metallic taste, gray color, brown color, and physicochemical attributes (moisture and protein content). The correlation loading plot showed that the distribution of the samples on the axes of the first two PCs allowed for differentiation of samples injected to 30% injection level which were placed on the upper side of the biplot from those injected to 35% which were placed on the lower side. Similarly, beef samples extended with gum arabic and those containing SPC were also visible when scores for the first and third PCs were plotted. Thus, PCA was efficient in analyzing the quality characteristics of beef rounds extended with gum arabic.
