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![Plant fatty acid metabolism pathway model. PLDζ1/2: Phospholipase D1/2; PAH1/2: phosphatidic acid phosphatase 1/2; ABCA9: ATP-binding cassette transporter A9; LACS9: long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase 9; FAX1: Fatty Acid Export 1; FFA: free fatty acid; TGD1/2/3/4: Trigalactosyldiacylglycerol1; JA: jasmonic acid; SFR2: SENSITIVE TO FREEZING2 The Figures reprinted with permission from ref. [7, 20, 50, 68–70]](publication/361943097/figure/fig2/AS:11431281086730793@1664330448837/Plant-fatty-acid-metabolism-pathway-model-PLDz1-2-Phospholipase-D1-2-PAH1-2.png)
Plant fatty acid metabolism pathway model. PLDζ1/2: Phospholipase D1/2; PAH1/2: phosphatidic acid phosphatase 1/2; ABCA9: ATP-binding cassette transporter A9; LACS9: long-chain acyl-CoA synthetase 9; FAX1: Fatty Acid Export 1; FFA: free fatty acid; TGD1/2/3/4: Trigalactosyldiacylglycerol1; JA: jasmonic acid; SFR2: SENSITIVE TO FREEZING2 The Figures reprinted with permission from ref. [7, 20, 50, 68–70]
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Background:
Biological and abiotic stresses such as salt, extreme temperatures, and pests and diseases place major constraints on plant growth and crop yields. Fatty acids (FAs) and FA- derivatives are unique biologically active substance that show a wide range of functions in biological systems. They are not only participated in the regulation of...
Citations
... The ability to regulate membrane lipid fluidity by altering unsaturated fatty acid levels is an important characteristic of plants domesticated by environmental stress [24]. In plants, an increase in fatty acid unsaturation helps to increase the fluidity of cell membranes, prevent stress-induced membrane hardening and membrane damage, and maintain the structural and functional integrity of cell membranes, thus improving the plant's resistance to environmental stress [25][26][27]. Xie et al. [28] found significant gene enrichment in the fatty acid elongation pathway in C. oleifera during cold domestication. Thus, the increase in unsaturated fatty acids with latitude in the cultivars may be related to the evolution of their adaptations to cold stress. ...
Camellia oleifera is a woody oil crop with the highest oil yield and the largest cultivation area in China, and C. oleifera seed oil is a high-quality edible oil recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. The objectives of this study were to investigate the variation in fruit yield traits and seed chemical compositions of wild C. oleifera in China and to identify the differences between wild C. oleifera and cultivated varieties. In this study, we collected wild C. oleifera samples from 13 sites covering the main distribution areas of wild C. oleifera to comprehensively evaluate 25 quantitative traits of wild C. oleifera fruit and seed chemical compositions and collected data of 10 quantitative traits from 434 cultivated varieties for a comparative analysis of the differences between wild and cultivars. The results showed that the coefficients of variation of the 25 quantitative traits of wild C. oleifera ranged from 2.605% to 156.641%, with an average of 38.569%. The phenotypic differentiation coefficients ranged from 25.003% to 99.911%, with an average of 77.894%. The Shannon–Wiener index (H’) ranged from 0.195 to 1.681. Based on the results of principal component analysis (PCA) and phenotypic differentiation coefficients, 10 traits differed significantly between wild C. oleifera and cultivated varieties, while the differentiation coefficients (VST) for fresh fruit weight, oleic acid, unsaturated fatty acids, stearic acid, and saturated fatty acids were more than 95%, of which fresh fruit weight and oleic acid content were potential domestication traits of C. oleifera. The results of this study can contribute to the efficient excavation and utilization of wild C. oleifera genetic resources for C. oleifera breeding.
... Under conditions of elevated temperature and insufficient watering, the FAD2 genes probably do not have sufficient time to desaturate oleic acid to linoleic acid to the same extent as at reduced temperature, resulting in increased OLE and decreased LIO+LIN contents. FAD genes are known to be involved in the responses to a variety of stresses, including high and low temperatures [45]. The effects of increased and/or decreased temperatures on the expression of FAD genes were reported for banana [46], maize [47], Gossypium [48], cucumber [49], and some genotypes of soybean [50]. ...
Flax seed is one of the richest plant sources of linolenic acid (LIN) and also contains unsaturated linoleic acid (LIO) and oleic acid (OLE). Stearoyl-ACP desaturases (SADs) and fatty acid desaturases (FADs) play key roles in the synthesis of flax fatty acids (FAs). However, there is no holistic view of which genes from the SAD and FAD families and at which developmental stages have the highest expression levels in flax seeds, as well as the influence of genotype and growth conditions on the expression profiles of these genes. We sequenced flax seed transcriptomes at 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days after flowering (DAF) for ten flax varieties with different oil FA compositions grown under three temperature/watering conditions. The expression levels of 25 genes of the SAD, FAD2, and FAD3 families were evaluated. FAD3b, FAD3a, FAD2b-2, SAD3-1, SAD2-1, SAD2-2, SAD3-2, FAD2a-1, and FAD2a-2 had the highest expression levels, which changed significantly during seed development. These genes probably play a key role in FA synthesis in flax seeds. High temperature and insufficient watering shifted the maximum expression levels of FAD and SAD genes to earlier developmental stages, while the opposite trend was observed for low temperature and excessive watering. Differences in the FAD and SAD expression profiles under different growth conditions may affect the FA composition of linseed oil. Stop codons in the FAD3a gene, resulting in a reduced LIN content, decreased the level of FAD3a transcript. The obtained results provide new insights into the synthesis of linseed oil.
... Етилен визначали газовим хроматографом (Selmihrome, Україна), як описано раніше (Liljenberg C. et al., 1985). Жирнокислотний склад визначали в етіольованих колеоптилях газовою хроматографією (Xiao R. et al., 2022), де перші листки були вищими за колеоптилі на 1-5 мм. ...
There are a number of global problems in the agricultural sector of Ukraine, including environmental factors such as climate change, floods and droughts, which cause damage to plant tissues and significant losses of food crops. A significant obstacle to the development of agriculture and food security in Ukraine are biotic factors, in particular pathogenic bacteria, viruses and microfungi. Fusarium are the most widespread and aggressive pathogens to grain crops, especially to wheat. These obstacles can be overcome by introducing wheat varieties resistant to Fusarium into agronomic practice. However, selection of resistant wheat to fusariosis along the path of traditional centuries-old selection is a laborious and expensive road. However, selection of resistant wheat to fusariosis along the path of traditional centuries-old selection is a laborious and expensive road. Therefore, the search for new effective tools that will facilitate the selection of plants with desirable characteristics at the early stages of breeding programs is an urgent task. Methods. Wheat varieties of different resistance to abiotic and biotic factors in field conditions were used in laboratory studies: resistant, semi-resistant and non-resistant. Ethylene and fatty acids were determined by gas chromatographic methods. The results. Patterns of ethylene and fatty acid synthesis of winter wheat varieties with different resistance to biotic and abiotic factors were revealed. Resistant varieties are characterized by a significantly higher content of these compounds compared to non-resistant varieties. A similar regularity was found in relation to the lodging of plants: the higher the content of these compounds, the greater the resistance to lodging. Conclusions and perspectives. This article describes two methods of assessing the resistance of winter wheat to abiotic and biotic stresses, which can be implemented in breeding programs.
... Fatty acids (FAs) play crucial roles as integral components of cell membranes and lipid storage. They are also precursors of various plant metabolites [59] and signaling molecules [60]. FAs in plants are synthesized exclusively within plastids and are catalyzed by enzymes such as acetyl CoA carboxylase (ACC) and fatty acid synthase (FAS) [61]. ...
The flowering stage is a critical period for water sensitivity and quality formation of broomcorn millets. However, the effects and mechanisms of drought stress on the quality formation of broomcorn millets are not clear. We used the drought-resistant variety Hequ red millet (H) and the drought-sensitive variety Yanshu No. 10 (Y) were used as materials for drought stress treatment during the flowering stage, metabolomics and physiological methods were used to study the differences in protein, starch, amino acids, medium and medium-long chain fatty acids, and their response characteristics to drought in broomcorn millet. The results showed that different genotypes of broomcorn millets exhibited different response mechanisms in the face of drought stress. In Hequ red millet, drought stress significantly increased the contents of amylopectin (2.57%), pyridoxine (31.89%), and anthocyanin, and significantly decreased the contents of water-soluble protein (5.82%), glutelin (10.07%), thiamine (14.95%) and nicotinamide (23.01%). In Yanshu No. 10, drought significantly decreased amylose by 6.05%, and significantly increased riboflavin and nicotinamide contents by 21.11% and 32.59%. Correlation analysis showed that total starch and amylose were highly significantly positively correlated with methyl palmitate; negatively correlated with amylopectin, vitamins, proteins, free amino acids, and medium-long chain fatty acids; and amylopectin was significantly positively correlated with water-soluble protein, riboflavin, and pyridoxine. Water-soluble protein and glutelin were significantly positively correlated with most free amino acids, medium-long chain fatty acids, and nicotinamide. Thiamine showed significant positive correlation with nicotinamide and significant negative correlation with pyridoxine. Riboflavin was significantly positively correlated with nicotinamide, pyridoxine, and water-soluble protein, and pyridoxine was significantly positively correlated with water-soluble protein. Hequ red millet transforms into amylopectin by consuming water-soluble protein and glutelin, and improves drought resistance by accumulating pyridoxine, and changes its physicochemical properties by decreasing the content of amylose and protein and elevating the content of amylopectin. Yanshu No. 10 resisted drought by catabolizing lipids to produce fatty acids and by consuming amylose for conversion into other metabolites. The present study helps to understand the response of the nutritional quality of millets to drought stress at the flowering stage and provides a theoretical basis for the selection and breeding of superior varieties of millets and drought resistance research.
... * indicated significant differences, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01 et al. 2019,2020). Esterases, on the other hand, participate in the hydrolysis of ester bonds and may be involved in lipid metabolism and signalling pathways associated with plant defence (Shen et al. 2022;Xiao et al. 2022). We analysed the expression levels of apoplastic hydrolases during C. fructicola infection, and majority of the genes showed an upregulation trend during the early stages (Fig. 5a, b). ...
Pear anthracnose, caused by the fungus Colletotrichum fructicola , is a devastating disease for the pear industry. The apoplast, an extracellular compartment outside the plasma membrane, plays a crucial role in water and nutrient transport, as well as plant-microbe interactions. This study aimed to uncover the molecular mechanism of pear leaf apoplastic protein-mediated resistance to C. fructicola . Apoplast fluid was isolated using the vacuum infiltration method, and defence-related apoplastic proteins were identified through protein mass spectrometry and transcriptome sequencing. We found 213 apoplastic proteins in the leaf apoplast fluid during early C. fructicola infection, with the majority (74.64%) being enzymes, including glycosidases, proteases, and oxidoreductases. Gene Ontology analysis revealed their involvement in defence response, enzyme inhibition, carbohydrate metabolism, and phenylpropanoid biosynthesis. Transcriptome analysis showed the infection induced expression of certain apoplast proteins, potentially contributing to pear leaf resistance. Notably, the expression of PbrGlu1 , an endo-β-1,3-glucanase from the glycoside hydrolase 17 family, was significantly higher in infected leaves. Silencing of the PbrGlu1 gene increased pear leaf susceptibility to C. fructicola , leading to more severe symptoms and higher reactive oxygen species content. Overall, our study provides insights into the apoplast space interaction between pear leaves and C. fructicola , identifies a key gene in infected pears, and offers a foundation and new strategy for understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying pear anthracnose and breeding disease-resistant pears.
... Probably under higher temperatures and insufficient watering, the FAD2 genes do not have enough time to desaturate oleic acid to linoleic acid to the same extent as at lower temperatures, resulting in increased OLE and decreased LIO+LIN content. FAD genes are known to be involved in the response to a variety of stresses, including high and low temperatures [45]. The effects of increased and/or decreased temperatures on the expression of FAD genes were reported for banana [46], maize [47], Gossypium [48], cucumber [49], and some genotypes of soybean [50]. ...
Flax seed is one of the richest plant sources of linolenic acid (LIN) and also contains unsaturated linoleic acid (LIO) and oleic acid (OLE). Stearoyl-ACP desaturases (SAD) and fatty acid desaturases (FAD) play a key role in the synthesis of flax fatty acids (FA). We sequenced flax seed transcriptomes at the 3, 7, 14, 21, and 28 day after flowering (DAF) for ten flax varieties with different oil FA compositions grown under three temperature/watering conditions. Expression levels of 25 genes of SAD, FAD2, and FAD3 families were evaluated. FAD3b, FAD3a, FAD2b-2, SAD3-1, SAD2-1, SAD2-2, SAD3-2, FAD2a-1, and FAD2a-2 had the highest expression levels, which changed significantly during seed development. These genes probably play a key role in the FA synthesis in flax seeds. High temperature and insufficient watering shifted the maximum expression levels of the FAD and SAD genes to earlier development stages, while the opposite trend was observed for low temperature and excessive watering. Differences in FAD and SAD expression profiles under different growth conditions could contribute to the FA composition of linseed oil. Stop codons in the FAD3a gene, resulting in reduced LIN content, decreased the level of the FAD3a transcript. Some difference in reaching the maximum expression level during seed development was observed between 1) SAD3-1, SAD3-2, and FAD2b-2 and 2) SAD2-1, SAD2-2, FAD2a-1, FAD2a-2, FAD3a, and FAD3b. These groups possibly contribute somewhat differently to the synthesis of FA at different development stages.
... FAD and SAD are known to be involved in the response to stressors [80,[105][106][107]. We discovered the differential expression of FAD and SAD in flax plants in response to biotic and abiotic stress conditions. ...
FAD (fatty acid desaturase) and SAD (stearoyl-ACP desaturase) genes play key roles in the synthesis of fatty acids (FA) and determination of oil composition in flax (Linum usitatissimum L.). We searched for FAD and SAD genes in the most widely used flax genome of the variety CDC Bethune and three available long-read assembled flax genomes—YY5, 3896, and Atlant. We identified fifteen FAD2, six FAD3, and four SAD genes. Of all the identified genes, 24 were present in duplicated pairs. In most cases, two genes from a pair differed by a significant number of gene-specific SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) or even InDels (insertions/deletions), except for FAD2a-1 and FAD2a-2, where only seven SNPs distinguished these genes. Errors were detected in the FAD2a-1, FAD2a-2, FAD3c-1, and FAD3d-2 sequences in the CDC Bethune genome assembly but not in the long-read genome assemblies. Expression analysis of the available transcriptomic data for different flax organs/tissues revealed that FAD2a-1, FAD2a-2, FAD3a, FAD3b, SAD3-1, and SAD3-2 were specifically expressed in embryos/seeds/capsules and could play a crucial role in the synthesis of FA in flax seeds. In contrast, FAD2b-1, FAD2b-2, SAD2-1, and SAD2-2 were highly expressed in all analyzed organs/tissues and could be involved in FA synthesis in whole flax plants. FAD2c-2, FAD2d-1, FAD3c-1, FAD3c-2, FAD3d-1, FAD3d-2, SAD3-1, and SAD3-2 showed differential expression under stress conditions—Fusarium oxysporum infection and drought. The obtained results are essential for research on molecular mechanisms of fatty acid synthesis, FAD and SAD editing, and marker-assisted and genomic selection for breeding flax varieties with a determined fatty acid composition of oil.
... In the current study, a gene encoding a choline kinase, which is involved in phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis and has been found previously to be up-regulated under high salt conditions in Arabidopsis [123], was down-regulated under salinity stress in alfalfa leaves (File S2), which could lead to an associated reduction in membrane integrity. Conversely, a gene encoding an omega-6 fatty acid desaturase, which is known to be involved in the synthesis of 18:2 fatty acids [124], was highly up-regulated under salinity stress (File S1). This latter finding correlates well with previous studies in which the expression of the omega-6 fatty acid desaturase FAD2 was up-regulated under salinity stress in alfalfa leaves [36], and the suggestion that fatty acid desaturation by FADs may provide an important adaptive mechanism to deal with salt stress in alfalfa through the effect of polyunsaturated fatty acid levels on membrane fluidity [125]. ...
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is a widely grown perennial leguminous forage crop with a number of positive attributes. However, despite its moderate ability to tolerate saline soils, which are increasing in prevalence worldwide, it suffers considerable yield declines under these growth conditions. While a general framework of the cascade of events involved in plant salinity response has been unraveled in recent years, many gaps remain in our understanding of the precise molecular mechanisms involved in this process, particularly in non-model yet economically important species such as alfalfa. Therefore, as a means of further elucidating salinity response mechanisms in this species, we carried out in-depth physiological assessments of M. sativa cv. Beaver, as well as transcriptomic and untargeted metabolomic evaluations of leaf tissues, following extended exposure to salinity (grown for 3–4 weeks under saline treatment) and control conditions. In addition to the substantial growth and photosynthetic reductions observed under salinity treatment, we identified 1233 significant differentially expressed genes between growth conditions, as well as 60 annotated differentially accumulated metabolites. Taken together, our results suggest that changes to cell membranes and walls, cuticular and/or epicuticular waxes, osmoprotectant levels, antioxidant-related metabolic pathways, and the expression of genes encoding ion transporters, protective proteins, and transcription factors are likely involved in alfalfa’s salinity response process. Although some of these alterations may contribute to alfalfa’s modest salinity resilience, it is feasible that several may be disadvantageous in this context and could therefore provide valuable targets for the further improvement of tolerance to this stress in the future.
... The interest in determining PhytoP and PhytoF levels in wheat samples was two-fold: as indicators of oxidative stress, and their putative role in defense. Fatty acid desaturases (FADs) can modulate plants' defenses to pathogens and insects [40]. PUFAs generated by FADs are precursors for multiple oxylipins that contribute to plant defense and developmental pathways in plants that vary with ontogeny and in response to pathogens and insects [41]. ...
Wheat is critical for food security, and is challenged by biotic stresses, chiefly aphids and the viruses they transmit. The objective of this study was to determine whether aphids feeding on wheat could trigger a defensive plant reaction to oxidative stress that involved plant oxylipins. Plants were grown in chambers with a factorial combination of two nitrogen rates (100% N vs. 20% N in Hoagland solution), and two concentrations of CO2 (400 vs. 700 ppm). The seedlings were challenged with Rhopalosiphum padi or Sitobion avenae for 8 h. Wheat leaves produced phytopros-tanes (PhytoPs) of the F1 series, and three types of phytofurans (PhytoFs): ent-16(RS)-13-epi-ST-Δ 14-9-PhytoF, ent-16(RS)-9-epi-ST-Δ 14-10-PhytoF and ent-9(RS)-12-epi-ST-Δ 10-13-PhytoF. The oxylipin levels varied with aphids, but not with other experimental sources of variation. Both Rhopalosiphum padi and Sitobion avenae reduced the concentrations of ent-16(RS)-13-epi-ST-Δ 14-9-PhytoF and ent-16(RS)-9-epi-ST-Δ 14-10-PhytoF in relation to controls, but had little or no effect on PhytoPs. Our results are consistent with aphids affecting the levels of PUFAs (oxylipin precursors), which decreased the levels of PhytoFs in wheat leaves. Therefore, PhytoFs could be postulated as an early indicator of aphid hosting for this plant species. This is the first report on the quantification of non-enzymatic PhytoFs and PhytoPs in wheat leaves in response to aphids.
... The increase in unsaturated FAs content in the cell membrane enhanced the membrane lipid fluidity and thus could increase the tolerance of the cell to the low temperature (Xiao et al., 2022). The results above showed that the overexpression of VfSAD1/2 promoted the production of oleic acid and/or its derivation in the BY4741 and Arabidopsis. ...
The seed oil of tung tree is rich in a-eleostearic acid (ESA), which endows tung oil with the characteristic of an excellently dry oil. The stearoyl-acyl carrier protein δ9 desaturase (SAD) is a rate-limiting enzyme that converts the stearic acid to the oleic acid, the substrate for the production of the α-ESA. However, the function of the two predicted VfSAD1 and VfSAD2 genes in the tung tree has not been determined. In this study, quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis showed that VfSAD1 and VfSAD2 were expressed in multiple organs of tung tree but were highly expressed in the seed during the oil rapid accumulation period. Heterologous expression of VfSAD1 and VfSAD2 could promote the production of oleic acid and its derivatives in Arabidopsis thaliana and yeast BY4741, indicating that VfSAD1 and VfSAD2 possess the stearoyl-ACP desaturases function. Furthermore, both VfSAD1 and VfSAD2 could significantly improve seed oil accumulation in Arabidopsis. VfSAD1 could also significantly promote the oil accumulation in the yeast BY4741 strain. In addition, overexpression of VfSAD1 and VfSAD2 enhanced the tolerance of yeast and Arabidopsis seedlings to low temperature stress. This study indicates that the two VfSAD genes play a vital role in the process of oil accumulation and fatty acid biosynthesis in the tung tree seed, and both of them could be used for molecular breeding in tung tree and other oil crops.
