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Plan of the Great Enclosure showing the constituent ruins, after Lance Penny (National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe).
Source publication
‘Any study of Great Zimbabwe has to rely a great deal on re-examining and re-assessing the work of early investigators, the men who removed all the most important finds from the ruins and stripped them of so much of their deposits’ (Garlake 1973: 14). The authors have here done us a great service in reviewing the surviving archaeological evidence f...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... similar architectural development is noted in the valley. According to , the construction of the Great Enclosure developed in stages as shown by the mixture of P and Q coursing ( Figure 6). Wall construction began around the P-coursed enclosure (no. 1 on the plan) and from this initial core area, additional PQ walls were built over time (e.g. ...
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Citations
... Bokoni's stone-walled sites are an example of southern African stone-walled architectural traditions that started early in the second millennium and were widespread by the 1700s (see e.g. Mason 1968;Maggs 1976Maggs , 2008Huffman 1986Huffman , 1996Soper 1996Soper , 2006Hall 1998;Boeyens 2000Boeyens , 2003Pikiryai 2002;Lane 2004;Chirikure & Pikirayi 2008;Lane & Swanepoel 2010;Chirikure et al. 2013;Chirikure et al. 2018;Sadr 2019aSadr , 2019bSadr , 2019c. These southern African stone-walled sites are significant because they embody information about the social, economic, and political institutions of precolonial societies (Schoeman 1998a,b;Soper 2006;Widgren et al. 2016). ...
Interest in precolonial stone-walled structures in Mpumalanga began in the 19th century AD when European settlers and travellers encountered these stone-walled complexes. Since then these sites, which are associated with African farming communities, have been investigated using ground-based surveys and aircraft-based remote sensing, including LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging). Remote sensing using aerial photographs has been central to research in Bokoni since the 1970s. Through this, stone-walled structures of various shapes, sizes and functions have been identified. These include circular homesteads, agricultural terraces and stone-walled roads. This study employed machine learning-support vector machines (SVM)-to determine whether such structures can be automatically extracted from LiDAR data and classified using computerised techniques. In this paper, we present our innovative research on the use of machine learning applications for the detection of stone-walled structures in the Bokoni village of Khutwaneng, Thaba-Chweu, Mpumalanga Province. The results show that the total (overall) accuracy of the auto detection of stone-walled structures is 95% and the Kappa coefficient (K) accuracy is 91%, which is acceptable in terms of both overall and K accuracy. The object-oriented machine learning technique was found to have good classification accuracies for detecting stone-walled structures.
... At Great Zimbabwe archaeological evidence also comes in the form of locally manufactured clay pots, faunal remains, metal artefacts, carved soapstone sculptures, imported glazed ceramics and glass beads (Garlake, 1973;Matenga, 1998;Matenga, 2011;Chirikure, 2021). Archaeological collections from Great Zimbabwe, which have largely been plundered over the years, are now scattered all over the world in public museums, research institutions and some private collections (Chirikure and Pikirayi, 2008). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to outline and reflect on the new research agenda for the Great Zimbabwe World Heritage property. This research agenda was jointly developed by academics and practitioners from Great Zimbabwe University (GZU) and the National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe (NMMZ) respectively. This Research-Practice Team was put together for the Heritage Place Lab (HPL), a pilot project of the ICCROM-IUCN World Heritage Leadership programme.
Design/methodology/approach
A series of steps were undertaken to come up with research priorities and a new research agenda that are presented in this paper. The HPL project involved online workshops, due to the COVID-19 travel restrictions, that were held between September 2021 and April 2022. The HPL methodology involved six assignments that were based on the Enhancing Our Heritage Toolkit 2.0 (EOH) which was being designed by UNESCO and its Advisory Bodies. This toolkit encouraged the team to establish site-specific management issues and research needs. The toolkit helped the team to have a detailed appreciation of the site's Outstanding Universal Value as well as other heritage values of national and local importance. The toolkit also involved the mapping of site attributes and multiple actors as well as the analysis of governance and legal frameworks. The toolkit also required the team to identify factors affecting the heritage property.
Findings
The Research-Practice Team highlighted challenges that resulted from the legacy of ill-informed research activities and conservation efforts at the World Heritage property. It became more apparent that the site managers were prioritizing the physical fabric of the site at the expense of the spiritual aspects. Lack of coordination among the actors was also undermining the governance structure. Four thematic strands which included local values and intangible cultural heritage elements; heritage governance; climate change and environmental sustainability and incorporation of local knowledge systems were identified for further research.
Originality/value
The paper is an outcome of collaborative efforts that were done by academics and practitioners. Researchers and site managers at Great Zimbabwe had hitherto worked in silos. The majority of previous and ongoing research on the World Heritage property falls short of addressing the dire management challenges. The paper is an attempt to broaden the scope in terms of the management of the site. In the past focus has been on the monumental aspects of the site with specific reference to the dry-stone walled structures. However, in this instance, the Research-Practice Team has integrated new interests such as the intangible aspects of Great Zimbabwe, spirituality and community beneficiation.
... These efforts have been dismissed as a result of chronological and ecological considerations (Chirikure et al. 2014;Manyanga and Chirikure 2019;Chirikure 2021). Chronologically, Great Zimbabwe was a contemporary of the Shashi-Limpopo basin early states like K2, Mapela, and Mapungubwe (Chirikure and Pikirayi 2008;Chirikure et al. 2014). These states may have been peer polities, sharing various economic, social, and political ties. ...
Several states developed in southern Africa between the 9th and the 18th century ce . Some of these states include Mapela, Great Zimbabwe, Mapungubwe, Toutswe, and Khami. The foundation of these states was agriculture and other local branches of the economy, like mining, local and regional trade, hunting, and crafts production. Because of the agricultural foundation of these states, environmental and climatic variables are always considered important in their development and collapse. Despite repeated episodes of climate change and variability, environmental deterioration, and even political upheaval, these early states of southern Africa demonstrate longevity and spatial growth through time in various regions. The oversimplistic correlation of favorable climatic and environmental conditions with growth of states and adverse climatic conditions and environmental deterioration with their demise has been questioned. Rather, it has been suggested that precolonial sociopolitical systems adapted to environmental and climatic changes. This process created new forms that archaeologists often interpret as denoting collapse. Changes in material culture, new spatial configurations, expansion into new territories, changing livelihood strategies, and new innovations in food production, processing, and storage, among other things, all point to the adaptive strategies that mitigated against adverse conditions. The resilience of the socioecological system allowed societies to absorb changes, adapt, and reorganize. Thus, what has been perceived as collapse is rather a transition to a different way of life.
... In fact, this study showed that talc-rich pottery seems to have been locally produced in the provinces of Nsundi, Mbata, and Mpemba, the latter being home to the kingdom's capital (Tsoupra et al. 2022). It is also important to highlight that prestigious objects manufactured from talcose rocks have additionally been found in other African contexts that are contemporary of the Kongo kingdom, such as the tripod cooking pots of the Rasikajy (Madagascar) produced by specialized craftsman using regional sources (Nitsche et al. 2022); the soapstone statues of Esie (southwestern Nigeria), likely carved from local ultramafic rocks (Ige and Swanson 2008); and the soapstone birds and decorated bowls of Great Zimbabwe (southeaster Zimbabwe) found in the vicinity of evidences of local stone-working (Chirikure and Pikirayi 2008). ...
A mustard-gold-colored talc bead was recovered during the 2014 excavation campaign carried out in Lumbu (Mbanza Kongo, Angola) together with the nineteenth-century glass trade beads imported from Bohemia and Venice. Results from this multi-analytical and minimally invasive study suggest that this bead may have been brought to the kingdom’s capital by means of an established intra-kingdom trade network or as an offering intended for the king or a member of the nobility. However, it was undoubtedly manufactured within the Kongo kingdom using talc sources known by the local population. As such, this talc bead constitutes the first evidence of local production of personal adornment objects in the Kongo kingdom and one of the first examples of craft specialization for personal adornment purposes in central and southern Africa since pre-historic times.
... Leadership was probably justified through the manipulation of religion and ideology in what has been termed sacred authority. More recently, the idea of the CCP that Huffman projected into the deep archaeological past has been challenged (Badenhorst, 2009), and the idea of an elite class that was living separately from the commoners has also been thrown down the gauntlet (Chirikure and Pikirayi, 2008;Chirikure et al., 2018). ...
... Three crucial factors: (1) trade, (2) investment in extractive technologies and (3) elite monopolization of wealth-creating resources coalesced to propel the region towards greater interaction and complexity (Garlake 1982;Kim and Kusimba 2008;Kim et al 2015;Kusimba et al 2017;Mitchell 2005;. Major transformations household size, clear differences in wealth and status, and settlement hierarchies occurred towards the end of the first millennium AD Chirikure 2014;Chirikure and Pikirayi 2008;Kusimba 1999Kusimba , 2008Manyanga 2006:138;Pikirayi 2010;Sinclair et al 2012;Table 14.1). What factors contributed to the rise of societies that increasingly formalized inequality out of egalitarian and heterarchical societies that preceded them (McIntosh 1998)? ...
This book entitled ‘Studying Africa and Africans Today’ is derived from the
Second Meeting of Xiamen University Belt and Road Research Institute Africa
Regions Sub-Forum, that took place at Xiamen University in April 2019. The
different contributions triggered vivid and interesting debates in a collegial and
friendly atmosphere. The Africa sub-Forum debates lead to a series of
suggestions on how to strengthen the scientific, academic and cultural
collaboration and exchange between China and Africa in the context of the Belt
and Road Initiative. The strongest recommendation suggests a stronger
promotion of cultural, scientific, and academic collaboration and exchanges that
will open the way to better mutual understanding. The study is an inter�disciplinary research initiative with focus on Africa and people of African descent
worldwide. Scholars from different parts of the world, Algeria, Brazil, China,
France, Kenya, Senegal, South Africa, and the United States of America
contributed to the debates and discussion that took place at Xiamen university.
Keywords: Cultural collaboration; Africa; Xiamen University; China-Africa
Cooperation.
... Three crucial factors: (1) trade, (2) investment in extractive technologies and (3) elite monopolization of wealth-creating resources coalesced to propel the region towards greater interaction and complexity (Garlake 1982;Kim and Kusimba 2008;Kim et al 2015;Kusimba et al 2017;Mitchell 2005;. Major transformations household size, clear differences in wealth and status, and settlement hierarchies occurred towards the end of the first millennium AD Chirikure 2014;Chirikure and Pikirayi 2008;Kusimba 1999Kusimba , 2008Manyanga 2006:138;Pikirayi 2010;Sinclair et al 2012;Table 14.1). What factors contributed to the rise of societies that increasingly formalized inequality out of egalitarian and heterarchical societies that preceded them (McIntosh 1998)? ...
... Dry stone walls have been used around the world where the underlying lithology made suitable stones available-throughout the Mediterranean and in the Alps and Apennines regions, where they are densely distributed, often used as retaining walls for terracing (Agnoletti et al. 2015; Barbera and Cullotta 2012;Makhzoumi 2000;'Project ALPTER' 2008); throughout central and northern Europe, where they are mostly used as field boundaries (Collier 2013;Marshall and Moonen 2002;McAfee 2011;Müller 2013a;2013b); in North America ('Dry Stone Conservancy' n.d Australia' 2022); Africa (Chirikure and Pikirayi 2008) and Asia (Šrajer 2019, 37, 42). They are an extensive and densely distributed element, which partially explains the lack of systematic inventories. ...
The aim of this thesis was to capture the extensiveness and values of an important component of the Croatian Adriatic landscapes – namely, the heritage of the dry stone structures. Current scientific considerations still fail to capture their prevalence and significance despite their increasing relevance in the discourse of scientific research, spatial planning and cultural protection. In this thesis, valorisation comprised a multi-aspect approach, with the Cres-Lošinj archipelago used as a case study area. By combining a GIS-based cartographic production and processing, along with the in-situ recording of the dry stone artefacts accompanied by ethnographic notations, the objective was to lay a foundation and understanding of their distribution and characteristics. This task was followed by a correlation of the dry stone wall landscape-scale patterns to local historical socioeconomic circumstances to address the queries of time-depth data of their structures. Finally, the benefits arising from the dry stone walls were reviewed, especially those appurtenant to the ecosystem services framework, to assist future monetary valuation approaches. The research results include the full quantification and establishment of a GIS database of the dry stone walls of the Cres-Lošinj archipelago, a review and assessment of the heritage diversity and use and its distinctiveness in the context of the Croatian Adriatic and within. Dry stone wall patterns demonstrated their scientific value as indicators of historical events. With the example of the Cres olive grove, another lens of valorisation was discussed – namely, recognition under the cultural landscape category. Finally, initial steps for the conceptualisation of a valuation model were provided.
... Towards the end of the 1st millennium ad, Southern Africa experienced social, economic and political transformations. This period ushered in what became known as the Iron Age (Chirikure & Pikirayi, 2008;Chirikure et al., 2013;Huffman, 2007;Pikirayi, 2001Pikirayi, , 2017. This period is believed to be a result of the development of agriculture from the north as part of the Bantu migration package (Pikirayi, 2014) that led to sedentarism and the rise of socio-complexity whose annex in the region is characterized by the Zimbabwe Culture (Chirikure et al., 2013;Huffman, 2007;Pikirayi, 2001Pikirayi, , 2006. ...
In terms of cultural heritage, Southern Africa is arguably one of the richest regions. This region has potential for a vibrant cultural heritage tourism sector. Against the background that cultural heritage tourism is a major source of revenue to this region and the need to educate the public on the importance of cultural heritage, we assess the region’s online promotion strategies to the public. We employed qualitative and quantitative analysis of data obtained from cultural heritage organizations of six countries, namely Botswana, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa and Zambia. We assessed the websites of these organizations on the premise of the Information, Communication, Transaction, Relationship and Technical model (ICTRT); social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, LinkedIn and Instagram were also analysed. Our results show that except for South African Heritage Resources Agency (SAHRA), South Africa, and National Heritage Council of Namibia, most Southern African cultural heritage institutions are struggling to promote cultural heritage online. Given the increased online activities as a result of the global COVID-19 pandemic, we also show that for most Southern African cultural heritage bodies, this has not yet positively affected their online marketing activities. Based on these results, we recommend that concerned organizations should increase online visibility geared towards aggressive marketing approaches.
... However, recent research has revised this view (see e.g. Chirikure and Pikirayi 2008;Pikirayi and Chirikure 2011;Chirikure et al. 2013Chirikure et al. , 2014Chirikure et al. , 2016Chirikure et al. , 2018Shenjere-Nyabezi et al. 2020). The archaeological evidence points towards the regional and parallel development of state systems, with some spawned by Great Zimbabwe. ...
An archaeological identity of the Nambya state in north-western Zimbabwe is attempted by interrogating available oral accounts to determine how monumental stone structures in the region contributed to the development of the historical landscape. The research employs concepts of ‘listening’ to inform the archaeology connected with the state, which is also recalled in the recent histories of the Nambya people. Chronometric dating indicates that the Nambya state developed earlier than previously thought, and a review of the oral accounts indicates very close connections with Great Zimbabwe. It may have been an offshoot of the expansion of the Zimbabwe Culture on the Zimbabwe plateau during the fifteenth century, like the Mutapa state (1400-1900 AD). The clustering of monumental stone structures in north-western Zimbabwe is best informed by oral accounts, which show how royal capitals or palaces, and by extension, state power, shifted from one place to another.
