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Photographs of multiple cropping systems. The pictures illustrate a a vegetable farm in the Salinas Valley, California (Jacques Wery photo credits), b pea and triticale sown in a 50 – 50 replacement design to reduce nitrogen input (INRA UMR Agronomy photo credits), and c a flower strip which provides regulation services such as pollination and pest regulation ( wikipedia/commons/5/57/ Blumen.jpg)
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Provisioning services, such as the production of food, feed, and fiber, have always been the main focus of agriculture. Since the 1950s, intensive cropping sys-tems based on the cultivation of a single crop or a single cultivar, in simplified rotations or monocultures, and relying on extensive use of agrochemical inputs have been preferred to more...
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... In terms of habitat, mixed species populations are better adapted and their ecological benefits have been verified by numerous studies. Specifically in reducing environmental compatibility issues [41], biodiversity enhancement [57], effective control of pests and diseases [58], optimization of soil quality [59], improvements in water use efficiency [60], and increased resilience to disasters [61]. This largely contributes to the establishment of a healthy and stable ecosystem. ...
Climate change is heavily altering plant distributions, posing significant challenges to conventional agricultural practices and ecological balance. Meanwhile, mixed species planting emerges as a potent strategy to enhance agricultural resilience, counteract climate change, preserve ecological balance, and provide a solution to economic instability. The MaxEnt model was used to predict the suitable area of Citrus reticulata under five climate scenarios and to explore affecting environmental factors. Litchi chinensis, Punica granatum, and Lycium chinense were selected as mixed species to analyze the spatial distribution and centroid migration trend of potentially suitable areas. The research results show the following: (1) The primary environmental factors impacting C. reticulata distribution are annual precipitation (1000–4000 mm), precipitation of driest quarter over 100 mm, and mean temperature of coldest quarter (12–28 °C). Crucially, the mixed species exhibited similar environmental sensitivities, indicating mutual mixing suitability. (2) Currently, the C. reticulata suitable area is of 240.21 × 104 km2, primarily in South, East, Central, and Southwest China, with potential for expansion to 265.41 × 104 km2 under the 2090s SSP1-2.6 scenario. (3) The geometric center of the moderately-to-highly suitable areas for C. reticulata is located in Hunan Province. Future scenarios show the C. reticulata’s centroid migrating northwest, with distances of less than 110 km. Mixed planting trends toward higher latitudes, fluctuating from 6 km to 210 km. (4) Mixed planting area planning: C. reticulata and L. chinensis are suitable for mixed planting in South China. C. reticulata and P. granatum, C. reticulata and L. chinense are suitable for mixed planting in most areas of Central, East, Southwest, and South China. This research presents a new perspective on using mixed design principles for ecological adaptation and the sustainable mixed planting of C. reticulata, in response to China’s changing climate. This approach is expected to help the economic fruit tree industry enhance ecological resilience and economic stability in the face of future climate change challenges.
... Meanwhile, legumes play a crucial role in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions through their nitrogen fixation capabilities. (Jensen et al., 2012;Jeuffroy et al., 2013), Legumes offer numerous ecosystem benefits, including biological control, pollination, carbon sequestration, and nutrient cycling (Doring et al., 2012;Gaba et al., 2015). Furthermore, it is noteworthy that grain-legume crops can boost subsequent cereal yields by an average of 29% (Cernay et al., 2018). ...
Intercropping is an important practice to reduce nitrogen (N) losses and to improve nitrogen use efficiency (NUE). Intercropping improves N uptake and minimizes N losses. Nitrogen sources have a significant impact on NUE, especially in the presence of leguminous species. A pot experiment was carried out to investigate the effect of nitrogen sources such as ammonium nitrate NH4 and NO3 on NUE and the growth of wheat and beans grown alone, as well as intercropping. The experiments were designed with a completely randomized design (CRD). Recommended doses of N, P and K were applied. The results indicated that there was a significant increase in plant biomass (49 + 0.5g) and shoot fresh (13.68 + 0.4) and plant dry weights (9 + 0.5), root fresh weight (2.3 + 0.09), number of spikes (14 + 0.6) under ammonium nitrate application. Chlorophyll a, b, chlorophyll a + b and carotenoid contents increased in wheat grown by ammonium nitrate application. Wheat spike length was found to be maximum in intercropping by ammonium nitrate. Grains N contents increased (2.77 % + 0.07) in intercropping because intercropping may help to improve the nitrogen use efficiency. A significant increase in N was observed in intercropping relative to crops grown separately. Intercropping and N sources had a substantial impact on the phosphorus contents of grains, shoots, and roots. The study concluded that plant growth parameters and nutrient contents improved by intercropping under ammonium nitrate application.
... Furthermore, there are few studies that investigate the synergies arising from efficient resource utilization through the integration of irrigation levels and agroforestry planting patterns, with challenges in predicting long-term outcomes. Studies have showed that planting crops between apple tree rows proves to be an approach to enhance the economic benefits of young orchards and land productivity in arid regions, especially before apple trees reach the fruiting stage [17]. However, it remains uncertain whether the water uptake by fruit trees and the canopy's radiation interception impact the yield and quality of crops in agroforestry settings as the years progress. ...
(1) Background: Crop yields in China’s arid and semi-arid regions are limited by water shortages. Exploring the interactions and resource utilization among agroforestry species is key to maintaining diversified agricultural production. (2) Objective: An apple–watermelon agroforestry system and watermelon sole-cropping system were compared to quantify how resource availability (light, water) and watermelon performance (leaf photosynthetic rate, growth, and yield) change with irrigation strategies. (3) Methods: A three-year apple and watermelon field experiment was conducted in a young apple orchard in the arid area of central Ningxia to test the effect of light competition and irrigation systems on light environment, leaf photosynthetic rate, plant growth, and yield in watermelon. The experiment encompassed two planting patterns: (i) apple–watermelon agroforestry (AF) and watermelon sole-cropping (SC) and (ii) three irrigation quotas (W1: 105 mm, W2: 210 mm, and W3: 315 mm). (4) Results: The results show that the agroforestry planting pattern extended the growth period of watermelon and increased the leaf area index. Mean daily shade intensity increased by 16.02% from 2020 to 2022. The land equivalent ratio (LER) was > 1 in 2021 and 2022. The SWC, leaf photosynthetic rate, LAI, and yield of watermelon in an agroforestry planting pattern were lower than when in a sole-cropping planting pattern. However, under the W1 irrigation strategy, the total soluble solids of the agroforestry planting pattern were 2.27% higher than those of the sole-cropping pattern, and the yield of the agroforestry planting pattern was 2.59% higher than that of the sole-cropping pattern. Under the W3 irrigation strategy, the average watermelon weight in the agroforestry planting pattern was 2.85% higher than that of the sole-cropping pattern. A path analysis showed that the agroforestry planting pattern can increase the yield by increasing soil water content, which is different from the sole-cropping pattern. (5) Conclusions: The results confirm that the apple–watermelon agroforestry planting pattern reduced watermelon yields. However, the LER of the agroforestry system was greater than 1.0. It is reasonable to plant watermelons in young apple forests.
... In 2018-19, cash crops accounted for 56.7% of total crops, but this percentage decreased to 44.48% in 2019-20, and further dropped to 43.67% in 2020-21. This shift may indicate a changing agricultural landscape, with farmers diversifying their crop portfolio or prioritizing food crops over cash crops for various reasons such as market demand, profitability, or government incentives [17]. ...
... This allows, for example, to link crop productivity with its implications for bird diversity and ground beetle abundance or to associate soil fertility with yield stability, crop quality and pest pressure. This landscape perspective provides the possibility to develop multicausality concepts and interacting theories for land-use interdependencies and landscape research that are evaluated from different points of view by ecologists, agronomists, soil scientists and economists (Gaba et al., 2015;Kernecker et al., 2022;Pereponova et al., 2023b). One experimental novelty of patchCROP is the extension of integrated crop protection strategies towards the landscape context, incorporating aspects of increasing diversification (e.g. ...
CONTEXT: Intensive food and feed production in sole-cropped, large fields with high fertilizer and pesticide inputs to achieve high yields, has contributed to detrimental environmental impacts. To move towards more sustainable agricultural landscapes, cropping system diversification has been suggested as a promising practice for which the use of digital technologies could be potentially beneficial. Understanding the impact of diversified, newly arranged cropping systems and their management in a landscape context requires long-term experimental data at the landscape scale and practical experiences in using digital technologies which are hardly available. Experimental platforms in an agricultural landscape setup with farmers’ involvement could meet such demands but have not been set up in many regions nor has the process of designing such platforms been described systematically.
OBJECTIVE: The overall objective of this study was to describe how an experimental platform can be co-designed jointly by researchers and practitioners to study and understand the impact of diversification practices compared to current cropping systems in Eastern Brandenburg, Germany. Specifically, we aimed to re-design an intensively managed field into smaller field segments that we called patches and to assess the potential of a co-created landscape experiment for sustainable agricultural production focussing on both, the practitioners´ and scientists´ perspective.
METHODS: We used the DEED research cycle (Describe, Explain, Explore and Design) as a conceptual framework to co-design the landscape experiment called patchCROP within a commercial farm. Patches were implemented as 0.5 ha fields within the original field based on yield and soil maps using advanced cluster analysis which considered soil heterogeneity and topography. The original narrow crop sequence was diversified by integrating new crops, cover crops and flower strips for a five-year crop rotation. To cultivate the patches, large machinery were during the first years but will be replaced over time with autonomous field robots. Workshops and various methods such as a SWOT analysis were used, to adjust the management practices towards pesticide reduction.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The SWOT analysis revealed opportunities and drawbacks to develop such a research platform in a participative manner from both the scientific and practical farming perspective. We found that the farmer-centric position focused mainly on the economic return and feasibility of future field operations in a spatio-temporal diversified field. The scientific perspective on the other hand described needs and potentials about the research process for evaluating dynamic, interdependent or opposing natural processes and their interactions like productivity, biodiversity and ecosystem service changes in an agricultural landscape context.
SIGNIFICANCE: Co-designed landscape experiments have the potential to simultaneously assess the impact of newly developed cropping systems on biodiversity and ecosystem services beyond the field level, crop performance and soil quality at multiple scales, and the implications for multiple actors. This is a step forward to extend systems-based research from single plot to landscape research in an on-farm environment, allowing the exploration of diversification measures with new digital technologies in the long run.
... The genetic erosion of domesticated crop and livestock species and the loss of wild species due to the decline of landscape complexity reduce ecosystem services such as pollination and natural pest control (Tscharntke et al., 2012;FAO 2019;Dainese et al., 2019). Moreover, less diverse farms can be more vulnerable to climatic or market risks, and pests and diseases (Di Falco and Perrings 2005;Baumgärtner and Quaas 2010;Dainese et al., 2019;Tamburini et al., 2020), hence they tend to depend more on external input use (Gaba et al., 2015;Spangler et al., 2020;Schut et al., 2021). ...
... There is compelling evidence that a greater diversity of crop and livestock species enhance wild biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services (Kremen and Miles 2012;Wood et al., 2015;Estrada-Carmona et al., 2022). Increasing agricultural diversity, through practices like intercropping, can enhance nutrient cycling and reduce soil erosion, then potentially allow the reduction of external inputs (Thrupp 2000;Gaba et al., 2015;Isbell et al., 2017). This can also increase the stability of crop yields and buffer climate and market risks, as farmers do not rely only on one product (Di Falco and Perrings 2005;Renard and Tilman 2019;Rosa-Schleich et al., 2019). ...
... At the plot scale, diversity usually refers to the characteristics of the soil and its microbial richness Rosa-Schleich et al., 2019). On-farm diversity may also consider the genetic or variety diversity within the same species (Jarvis and Hodgkin 2008;Galluzzi et al., 2010), as well as a range of management practices including intercropping, the use of cover crops or hedgerows, agroforestry, organic farming, seasonal or annual rotation, and crop-livestock mixed systems (Lin 2011;Gaba et al., 2015). Agricultural biodiversity is a more holistic concept that encompasses wild plants, animal species and insects interacting with the agricultural system and can refer to multiple scales from the farm to its surrounding landscape (FAO 2019; Bardsley et al., 2019). ...
Agricultural diversity can contribute to improving agriculture and food systems sustainability, but it is commonly
associated with smallholdings and subsistence farming. The drivers and trade-offs around diversification strategies
in high-income countries remain poorly understood. Tasmania, due to its diverse climate and geography, is
among the most agro-diverse regions in Australia, which makes it an interesting case to study. This paper addresses
three main research questions: (1) How do farmers define agricultural diversity and diversification? 2)
How is diversification ‘used’ as a farming strategy? and 3) What incentives and barriers are currently structuring
the adoption of these strategies? We conducted Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviews with 95 farmers across
Tasmania and analyse them qualitatively using thematic analysis. Our findings show that attitudes and motivations
towards agricultural diversity vary among farmers depending on personal experiences, values and
farming backgrounds and context. These motivations may influence the role that agricultural diversity plays
within farms. We could identify a net distinction between farmers using diversification strategies: (1) as integral
components of their business to respond to different needs and purposes, (2) purely as additional business opportunities
or (3) for motivations that go beyond the financial value. Nevertheless, other farmers prefer
specialisation as they find it more profitable or consider that investing in additional activities is too demanding
or financially risky. As only 14 farms in our sample specialised in a single product, our results suggest that
agricultural diversification strategies can also represent viable options also in a high-income country. However,
the variety of responses and perspectives among the participants of this study indicates that future research and
policy interventions promoting agricultural diversity should aim to identify and address the specific challenges
encountered by the different approaches to diversification employed by farmers.
... On the other hand, in 2022, apple trees were allowed to bear fruit, showcasing sustainable management (Gaba et al. 2015). Under agroforestry planting pattern, apple trees might benefit from cover crops (de Moura et al. 2021) or the additional water and nutrients brought by watermelon cultivation. ...
In arid and semi-arid regions of China, effective irrigation management and agronomic strategies are essential for enhancing the soil water environment and optimizing water productivity. A three-year (2020–2022) field experiment was conducted in the Ningxia Water Saving Agriculture Science and Technology Park, a semi-arid region in northwest China, to assess the impact of planting patterns, watermelon irrigation quotas and their interaction on soil moisture status, yield and quality. The experiment encompassed: (1) two planting patterns: Apple-watermelon agroforestry and watermelon sole-cropping; and (2) three irrigation quotas (W1: 105 mm, W2: 210 mm, and W3: 315 mm). As the years progress, there is a decreasing trend in the average soil water content (SWC) of the 0–100 cm soil layer within the agroforestry system. During the flowering and fruit setting stage and expansion stage in 2022, the soil water content (SWC) in the agroforestry planting pattern is significantly lower than that in the watermelon sole-cropping pattern. Within the agroforestry planting pattern, the W1 and W2 irrigation quotas increase the average fruit weight, soluble solids content, and sugar content but reduce watermelon yield. The interaction between the W3 irrigation quota and agroforestry planting pattern promotes leaf photosynthesis, and extends the watermelon fruit expansion stage and maturity stage to compensate for the decrease in yield.
In summary, the agroforestry planting pattern improves the quality of watermelon fruit, increases soil water utilization, and reduces yield. For those seeking sustainable solutions to enhance land productivity and water use efficiency, apple-watermelon agroforestry emerges as a more promising alternative.
... The extra yield obtained under the intercropping due to vegetables involves the effective use of the rice field through complementary use of space. To optimize the use of a given resource by crops, the temporal and spatial distribution of the resource must be considered when selecting the association of species (Gaba et al., 2015). In this study, the rice and vegetables (cucumber and bitter gourd) reached their growth period peaks at different times. ...
In the coastal zone of the Ganges Delta, in the wet season (June to November), rice is the predominant crop due to extensive flooding, but the income is low and nutritional food security is compromised. To increase the income from waterlogged paddy land in the coastal zones of Bangladesh and West Bengal, India, intercropping of climbing types vegetables such as bitter gourd, snake gourd, long yard bean, sponge gourd, cucumber and ridge gourd was studied by planting the vegetables in sacks containing a mix of 90 kg soil and 10 kg manure during wet seasons of 2017- 2019. Though there was a small reduction (6.3%) in rice yield in this system, the total rice equivalent yield (REY) of the rice + vegetables intercropping system (15.3–29.0 t ha−1) increased significantly over sole rice cultivation (4.9 – 6.5 t ha−1). Higher land equivalent ratio (1.67–1.93) and net income of this system also indicated better land resource utilization compared to sole rice cultivation. The net income from sole rice crop was US$ 193–612 ha−1 (mean $322 ha−1) but increased to US$ 268–3137 ha−1 (mean $1576 ha−1) with the intercropping interventions. The intercropping approach decreased year-to-year income variation by mitigating the risks to rice income due to climate threats such as cyclones. Thus, the net income of small and marginal farmers was increased substantially by practicing vegetable cultivation in lowland waterlogged paddy fields with this innovative technology. This technology has significant potential to increase the livelihood and nutritional outcomes of the poor farming families in the waterlogged coastal region.
... Functional diversity, which considers trophic interactions and the functional traits of species, emerges as a promising approach to understanding how agrobiodiversity can effectively counteract the impacts of stress (Calow, 1987;Wood et al., 2015). In this regard, agricultural diversification is the intentional addition of functional biodiversity through different cropping systems at multiple spatial and/or temporal scales (Kremen et al., 2012;Gaba et al., 2015;Tamburini et al., 2020). This review aims to analyze the reported benefits over the last 10 years of agricultural diversification in mitigating different types of biotic and abiotic stresses in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L), which, due to its status as a highyielding crop, high economic value, its rich dose of nutrients such as lycopene and carotenoids, as well as its versatility in cooking, is the most produced vegetable in the world and an important food component of the daily diet in most countries (Anwar et al., 2019). ...
... This review aims to analyze the reported benefits over the last 10 years of agricultural diversification in mitigating different types of biotic and abiotic stresses in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L), which, due to its status as a highyielding crop, high economic value, its rich dose of nutrients such as lycopene and carotenoids, as well as its versatility in cooking, is the most produced vegetable in the world and an important food component of the daily diet in most countries (Anwar et al., 2019). A comprehensive review was conducted by consulting two leading academic databases, SCOPUS and Web of Science (WOS), of research articles on tomatoes grown in one of the cropping systems proposed by Gaba et al. (2015): intercropping, crop sequence, field margin, and cover crop. ...
Sustainable agriculture has become a global priority in response to increasing food demand and the challenges confronting agricultural production, such as biotic and abiotic stresses. In this review, we delve into the role of plant diversity in mitigating these stressors within tomato cultivation. Our investigation reveals that the most extensively studied companion species are Vicia villosa Roth, Coriandrum sativum L., and Allium cepa L., while the primary stressors under scrutiny include nutrient deficiencies, aerial pests, and soil-borne pathogenic diseases. Regarding nutrient deficiencies, the cover crop system has demonstrated its capacity to provide essential nutrients directly and indirectly to plants. In addressing aerial pests and pathogens, all cultivation systems exhibit contributions. Finally, we assert that incorporating plant diversity into agroecosystems can effectively counteract various types of stressors. These benefits align with the application of agroecological principles and the development of sustainable agroecosystems. Further assessments of the effects of additional companion plant species are imperative. This should encompass the identification of their distribution, optimal plant quantities, and cultivation systems that enhance their benefits. Ultimately, these evaluations will aid in the formulation of comprehensive guidelines to facilitate the selection and utilization of plant diversity for long-term sustainability.
... Increasing cropping intensity is critical for meeting future food demand (Andrade, 2011;Waha et al., 2020). Beyond the positive impact on food production, crop intensification has the potential to improve agroecosystems and reduce the environmental impact of agriculture (Gaba et al., 2015). Examples of transition to intensified systems in water-limited environments include regions in Africa (Ali et al., 2017;Tsubo et al., 2005), Australia (Garba and Williams, 2023;Sadras and Roget, 2004), and the US Northern Great Plains (Berti et al., 2015;Smith and Young, 2000). ...
Low productivity, yield stagnation, and reduction of water use, altogether with increased susceptibility to climate variability represent a challenge for agricultural producers in the United States (US) central Great Plains. In this context, a more holistic assessment of the cropping systems should be considered as a critical aspect for developing more sustainable rainfed agricultural systems in this region. The objectives of this study were to: i) quantify the fallow precipitation storage efficiency for a continuous winter wheat rotation (traditional rotation), ii) analyze and compare glucose-equivalent yields and economic results for different cropping sequences, and iii) determine efficiency components of the rotation for components such as precipitation use efficiency (PUE) and nitrogen (N) partial factor productivity (PFPN) for different cropping sequences and N management. A three-year field experiment (2019–2022) was conducted near Manhattan, Kansas (US), under rainfed conditions. Treatments included eleven crop rotations, combining forage and grain purpose crops, and two N management, standard and progressive. An economic analysis based on the yield data combined with historical budgets was developed to compare income, expenses, and economic margins of different cropping systems. No-till summer fallow represented low (<20%) precipitation storage efficiency in the continuous winter wheat cropping system. In terms of cumulative dry matter and glucose-equivalent yields, greater overall productivity was feasible for more intensified systems and when forage crops were included in the crop sequence (e.g., ∼15 vs. ∼30 Mg glucose equivalent (GE) ha−1, for wheat monoculture and forage purpose only rotations, respectively). However, cropping sequences with high frequency of forages had negative economic margins (US$ -1113 to US$ -626 ha−1), while winter wheat combined with grain double crop rotation attained the highest positive economic returns (US$ 571 ha−1). Finally, progressive N-management increased PFPN relative to the standard management (63.5 vs. 54.2 kg GE kg N−1, respectively) while maintaining PUE for several intensified crop rotations. Expanding the adoption of more intensified and diversified cropping systems could increase resource capture and use efficiency and productivity in the dominant continuous winter wheat systems in the US central Great Plains.
