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... into account that this study encloses an extreme depuration time (72 hours), which is above the depuration period normally used in this industry, it was considered essential to evaluate the depuration effect throughout the depuration procedure. The species in study revealed a distinctive fatty acid mobilization throughout the first 24 hours period of the depuration procedure (Figure 4). Considering the first 24 hours period, it was observable that starvation imposed by depuration was responsible for variable fatty acid mobilization among species in study, reflected on total fatty acid loss (2.4% in oyster, 5.1% in mussel, 12.8% in clam and 16.1% in cockle). ...
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Citations
... Since the oysters used in this experiment were small in size, condition indices were smaller than larger oysters in a previous study [29]. However, these results followed a similar trend in relation to former oyster depuration studies in which condition indices were reduced but not significantly different after processing [29,[49][50][51]. Even in depuration trials where oysters were fed, condition index values after processing were not significantly different from values before processing [50]. ...
... Even in depuration trials where oysters were fed, condition index values after processing were not significantly different from values before processing [50]. Ruano et al. (2012) noted that higher glycogen, protein, and triacylglycerols contribute to higher energy reserves in some bivalve mollusks, making them more resistant to significant reductions in condition index values. Moreover, depuration at temperatures lower than 25 • C can help reduce oyster respiration and wasteful energy expenditure [52]. ...
Recently, our in vitro study on the effects of plasma-activated simulated seawater (PASW) demonstrated its potential as a novel, alternative disinfectant in oyster depuration. In this current study, PASW’s physicochemical and antimicrobial properties were identified and its effects on oyster quality were observed. Simulated seawater (SS) activated by plasma for 10 min (PASW10) increased in temperature, oxidation reduction potential, and electrical conductivity with a decrease in those parameters after 1:1 dilution with SS (PASW10 (1:1)). The pH decreased immediately after plasma activation and subsequently increased after dilution. Nitrate and nitrite concentrations were higher in PASW10 (1:1) compared to PASW10 (3:1). No free available chlorine was detected in undiluted PASW10. Processing using SS and PASW10 (1:1) depuration and refrigeration of E. coli-bioaccumulated oysters was observed. Significantly higher reductions in total coliform and E. coli were noted for PASW10 (1:1) treated oyster samples after 24 h compared to refrigerated samples. No significant differences in values for condition index or biting force of oyster meats were observed for the processed samples after 24 h. Overall, the novel and environment-friendly PASW could be used as an alternative antimicrobial disinfectant in oyster depuration systems because it does not negatively affect an oyster’s viability or quality.
... For example, a reduction of ~9% n-3 PUFAs and n-3 LC-PUFAs tissue content was observed from the start of the experiment. Similarly, a decrease of ~11% n-3 PUFAs was observed in adult mussels starved for 72 h following depuration (Ruano et al., 2012), whereas the FA profile of mussels starved for 30 days was found unchanged in another study (Pirini et al., 2007). Compared to the fed groups, NCmussels preferentially retained ARA in their tissues. ...
... Additionally, species-specific essential FA requirements and utilisation of energy sources (e.g. Albentosa et al., 1996;Delaporte et al., 2005;Milke et al., 2006;Ruano et al., 2012), as well as different particle capture capacity (Rosa et al., 2015;Pales Espinosa et al., 2016) have been reported for different filter feeders. Nevertheless, the resemblance of tissue biochemical and FA composition with the dietary profile, confirm the digestion of encapsulated Schizochytrium by M. galloprovincialis spat. ...
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enhance economic feasibility in spat production.
... Studies on natural food availability for bivalves in coastal waters reveal marked shortterm to seasonal variations in concentration, composition, and nutritional value [9]. As nutrition can be the dominant factor influencing bivalve growth [10], prolonged starving periods by lack of naturally occurring food may result in non-lethal prejudice to nutritional composition, with losses in organoleptic characteristics of the final product [11][12][13][14]. Based on their biochemical profile and suitable size for ease of digestion, live microalgae are an important natural food source for bivalves [15], supplying the necessary nutrition for the whole growth cycle [16,17]. ...
Bivalve mollusks represent a nutritious source with a low environmental impact; as a result, they are one of the most attractive aquaculture options. Advances in microencapsulation technology offer great potential to face key bivalve nutrition problems, and an alga-based microencapsulated diet can turn enriched bivalves into potential functional foods. The central goal of this study was the evaluation of food intake as a function of particle size and microalga content following the supply of four microencapsulated diets, incorporating as core material Nannochloropsis sp. or Tetraselmis sp. in 20 or 40 µm diameter pellets (diets N20, T20, N40, and T40, respectively) in five bivalve species (Magallana gigas, Solen marginatus, Ruditapes decussatus, Ruditapes philippinarum, and Cerastoderma edule). Overall, all tested diets were easily ingested, although food intake was higher for N20 (except for the S. marginatus, which showed a higher rate for the diet T40). Concerning a size-related analysis, C. edule and S. marginatus favored, respectively, smaller and bigger pellet-sized diets, with no signs of selectivity for microalga species. The diet T20 was the lesser ingested, except for C. edule. This knowledge enables a better selection of feed with appropriate and species-adjusted profiles, contributing to the optimization of microencapsulated diets for bivalve rearing and a better final product.
... Typical environmental stressors on oysters include variables such as temperature, food availability, pH, oxygen availability, salinity, presence of fouling organisms, disease, water movement, suspended sediments, and the presence of predators (Brown & Hartwick, 1988). Many studies have summarized the physiological response of oysters to these factors (Bayne, 2017;Bio & Nunes, 2021;McMenemy et al., 2018;Méthé et al., 2020;Ruano et al., 2012;Wang, Kong, et al., 2020). ...
Consumption of raw oysters, whether wild‐caught or aquacultured, may increase health risks for humans. Vibrio vulnificus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus are two potentially pathogenic bacteria that can be concentrated in oysters during filter feeding. As Vibrio abundance increases in coastal waters worldwide, ingesting raw oysters contaminated with V. vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus can possibly result in human illness and death in susceptible individuals. Depuration is a postharvest processing method that maintains oyster viability while they filter clean salt water that either continuously flows through a holding tank or is recirculated and replenished periodically. This process can reduce endogenous bacteria, including coliforms, thus providing a safer, live oyster product for human consumption; however, depuration of Vibrios has presented challenges. When considering the difficulty of removing endogenous Vibrios in oysters, a more standardized framework of effective depuration parameters is needed. Understanding Vibrio ecology and its relation to certain depuration parameters could help optimize the process for the reduction of Vibrio. In the past, researchers have manipulated key depuration parameters like depuration processing time, water salinity, water temperature, and water flow rate and explored the use of processing additives to enhance disinfection in oysters. In summation, depuration processing from 4 to 6 days, low temperature, high salinity, and flowing water effectively reduced V. vulnificus and V. parahaemolyticus in live oysters. This review aims to emphasize trends among the results of these past works and provide suggestions for future oyster depuration studies.
... In general, the sum of EPA (C20:5 n-3) and DHA (ƩEPA+DHA) is used to determine the nutritive value of seafood (Hibbeln 2002;Pietrowski et al. 2011;Sioen et al. 2007). EPA (C20:5 n-3) and DHA (C22:6 n-3) are agglomerated in bivalves via the ingestion of phytoplankton -their primary food source (Manthey-Karl et al. 2015;Pernet et al. 2012;Ricardo et al. 2017;Ruano et al. 2012). However, ƩEPA+DHA is comparable between M. opima and A. granosa (Table 1). ...
The present study elucidated the effects of species and geographical location on the fatty acid profile and lipid indices of bivalves. Lipid profiles of venus clam (Marcia opima) and blood cockles (Anadara granosa) harvested from Naruvilikulam and Achchankulam situated on the northwest coast of Sri Lanka were determined, and lipid indices were calculated. The dominant fatty acid group found in bivalves was saturated fatty acids. Total n-3 and n-6 fatty acid contents were similar between the two species. Both bivalve species were identified as potential sources of docosahexaenoic acid. Bivalves from Naruvilikulam site had significantly abundant levels of linolenic and eicosapentaenoic acids (0.83% and 5.69%, respectively). Thrombogenicity index was not influenced by species and geographical location of bivalves. M. opima and bivalves from Naruvilikulam site were detected with lower atherogenicity indices and higher hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterole-mic ratios than their counterparts and, therefore, can be recommended for consumers interested in healthy food selection.
... Bivalves are an important source of animal protein in human diet (Tan, Leng, et al., 2019), which contain high levels of amino acids (about 140 mg/kcal) and high long chain-polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) (arachidonate (ARA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) of 19-23%, 13-16% and 10-14%, respectively) (Ruano et al., 2012;Tan, Liu, Zhang, Li, Ma, et al., 2021;Tan, Ji, Zhang, Ma, Li, et al., 2021). To date, bivalves account for about 15% of the average per capita animal protein for 1.5 billion people (FAO, 2018). ...
Bivalve molluscs are very nutritious and an important source of animal protein for humans. To date, bivalve farming accounts for about 15% of the mean per capita animal protein intake of approximate 1.5 billion people around the world. Because of growing consumer interest in seafood with high total antioxidant capacity (TAC), which is believed to have many beneficial effects on human health, TAC in food has become a hot topic. In this study, total antioxidant capacity of five commercially important bivalves (Amusium japonicum taiwanicum, Atrina pectinata, Perna viridis, Ruditapes philippinarum, and Scapharca kagoshimensis) was determined by ferric-reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) assay. The results showed that the total antioxidant capacity of marine bivalves was species-specific and tissue-specific. The TAC of intertidal bivalves is higher than that of subtidal bivalves, and the TAC of gills is higher than that of adductor and mantle. The findings of this study not only fill the knowledge gap of TAC of commercially important marine bivalves, but also provide consumers with useful information to identify foods (marine bivalves) that may be more beneficial to human health.
... The digestive gland has a higher content of polyunsaturated fatty acids than gills (Almeida et al. 2007). As mentioned before, one of the deleterious consequences of the depuration process is the loss of a considerable portion of the total fatty acid contents in tissues of depurated organisms (Ruano et al. 2012). As gills have a lower content in fatty acids, the loss of fatty acids during the depuration period might have caused a greater impact in this tissue, than in the digestive gland. ...
... Concerning the condition index, there was a significant decrease of this parameter over time, being thus possible to conclude that the oysters were subjected to an undetermined nutritional deficit, which might have influenced this parameter. Decreases of the condition index of bivalves (including oyster species) during depuration periods are not new and have been already described by other authors (Ruano et al. 2012). According to Ruano et al. (2012), a depuration period of 72 h causes considerable loss of total fatty acid contents in oysters. ...
... Decreases of the condition index of bivalves (including oyster species) during depuration periods are not new and have been already described by other authors (Ruano et al. 2012). According to Ruano et al. (2012), a depuration period of 72 h causes considerable loss of total fatty acid contents in oysters. However, it must be stressed that oysters, in our experimental assay, were fed daily during the depuration period, with a ration that, theoretically, should provide all required nutrients, and in levels that far surpassed those previously used in studies described in the literature (Wassnig and Southgate 2016;Libini et al. 2017;Wang et al. 2018); however, animals were fed with only one algal species, which may be somewhat unsatisfactory in terms of nutrient variety. ...
Aquaculture activities are often established in the vicinity of highly populated, potentially contaminated areas. Animals cultured at such locations, namely bivalves, are frequently used as test organisms in ecotoxicological testing. In this case, a period of depuration is required to allow the normalization of physiological processes, which are likely to be altered after exposure to a multiplicity of waterborne contaminants occurring in the wild. One of the most important species in modern marine aquaculture is the oyster species Crassostrea gigas. The aim of this study was to assess if the current depuration time frame of 24 h (adopted by most aquaculture facilities), is long enough to permit oysters to revert potential toxic effects exerted by environmental contaminants, allowing their use in laboratory-based ecotoxicological studies. The selected approach involved the monitoring of biochemical (antioxidant defence, oxidative damage, phase II metabolism, and neurological homeostasis) and physiological (condition index) parameters, along a period of 42 days. The obtained results showed that a period of 24 h does not revert any of the potential toxic effects caused by environmental contaminants to which animals may have been previously subjected; even a period of 42 days was not long enough for the oysters to completely normalize the levels of their antioxidant defences, namely total GPx activity, which increased over time. Lipid peroxidation was also increased during the depuration period, and the activity of the metabolic isoenzymes GSTs was significantly decreased. Furthermore, AChE activity measured in the adductor muscle of oysters was increased over time. These assumptions suggest that a period of depuration longer than 24 h is mandatory to obtain adequate test organisms of this oyster species, to be used for ecotoxicological testing purposes.
... The fatty acid composition of most marine mussels is dominated by PUFA followed by saturated fatty acids (SFA), and then monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) (Ahn et al. 2000;Freites, Fern andez-Reiriz, and Labarta 2002;Kawashima and Ohnishi 2003;Lin et al. 2003;Taylor and Savage 2006;Xu and Yang 2007;Alkanani et al. 2007;Chakraborty et al. 2011;Ruano, Ramos, and Quaresma 2012;Ezgeta-Bali c et al. 2012;Dernekbaşı et al. 2015;Merdzhanova, Dobreva, and Panayotova 2017), except for P. viridis and Mytilus galloprovincialis collected from Kozhikode (Chakraborty et al. 2011) and Mar Grande of Taranto (Prato et al. 2010), respectively, in which SFA > PUFA > MUFA. It is worth noting that in some marine mussels, SFA content was only higher than PUFA and MUFA in winter. ...
Omega-3 Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LC-PUFA) are beneficial to human health. Since the industrial revolution, with the tremendous increase of human population, the supply of natural n-3 LC-PUFA is far lower than the nutritional need of n-3 LC-PUFA. Therefore, a new alternative source of natural n-3 LC-PUFA is urgently needed to reduce the supply and demand gap of n-3 LC-PUFA. Mollusks, mainly bivalves, are rich in n-3 LC-PUFA, but the information of bivalves' lipid profile is not well organized. Therefore, this study aims to analyze the published fatty acid profiles of bivalves and reveal the potential of bivalve aquaculture in meeting the nutritional needs of human for n-3 LC-PUFA. There are growing evidence show that the nutritional quality of bivalve lipid is not only species-specific, but also geographical specific. To date, bivalve aquaculture has not been evenly practiced across the globe. It can be seen that aquaculture is predominant in Asia, especially China. Unlike fish aquaculture, bivalve aquaculture does not rely on fishmeal and fish oil inputs, so it has better room for expansion. In order to unleash the full potential of bivalve aquaculture, there are some challenges need to be addressed, including recurrent mass mortalities of farmed bivalves, food safety and food security issues. The information of this article is very useful to provide an overview of lipid nutritional quality of bivalves, and reveal the potential of bivalve aquaculture in meeting the growing demand of human for n-3 LC-PUFA.
... Bivalve aquaculture is one of the fastest growing food industries in the world. Bivalves, especially cockles, oysters, mussels, and clams, are important sources of animal protein Ransangan 2016a, 2016b), with high LC-PUFA content (ARA, EPA and DHA of 19 to 23%, 13 to 16% and 10 to 14%, respectively) (Ruano et al. 2012;Tan et al. 2020c). Bivalve aquaculture accounts for 14 to 16% of the average per capita animal protein for 1.5 billion people, supporting the livelihoods of over 200,000 people mainly in developing countries (FAO 2018). ...
Mollusks are excellent dietary sources for LC-PUFA. However, the main challenge limiting mollusk production is the high mortality rate of molluskan larvae in early life cycle stages. This paper reviews scientific evidences on molecular and biochemical studies of LC-PUFA biosynthesis in commercially important molluskan species. It carefully summarizes the pertinent data published on specific research questions to improve the understanding of the diverse evidences. It is helpful to clarify the current state of research and determine topics for future studies on LC-PUFA biosynthesis in mollusks. From the analysis of published data, mollusks have the ability to biosynthesis LC-PUFA to a certain extent. LC-PUFA biosynthesis information of commercially important molluskan species can be useful to determine the fatty acids essential for their diet. Therefore, specific management strategies or feeds can be developed to strengthen the industry by improving the health and survival rate of molluskan larvae.
... Among FA, the 20:4n-6 (ARA) showed the highest percentages in all oysters throughout the cultivation period, specifically in December when both the chlorophyll a and organic seston concentrations were low. This finding agrees with reports by Ruano et al. (2012), who found that this FA was predominant in the group of n-6 PUFAs in species such as Crassostrea angulata, Mytilus edulis, Cerastoderma edule and Venerupis pullastra from cultivation and natural beds in Portugal. Similar results in relation to the greater levels of ARA among n-6 PUFA were previously reported by Hawkyns-Martínez et al. (2014) for P. sterna and by Yáñez et al. ...
In the Caribbean Sea, the winged oyster Pteria colymbus represents a promising resource for food and pearl production. The goal of the present study was to determine the influence of environmental variables generated by the seasonal coastal upwelling on the fatty acid profile (FAP) of the winged oyster Pteria colymbus. Changes in fatty acid (FA) levels were determined by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Chlorophyll a (Chl-a), temperature, seston (POM and TPM) and upwelling index (UI) were measured monthly and correlated with the FAPs. Statistical analysis (MDS-ANOSIM) revealed significant differences between FAPs of the soft tissues in the upwelling and non-upwelling seasons. The FAs that mainly explained the variance in the FAPs during the non-upwelling season were 14:0, 16:0, 18:0, 20:4n-6, 20:1n-11NMID, 20:5n-3 and 22:6n-3. During the upwelling season, the FAs that explained the variance were 18:3n-3, 18:4n-3 and 18:2n-6, in addition to those that varied during the non-upwelling season. PCA analysis between FAs and environmental variables in the upwelling season showed that UI presented a direct relationship with acids 16:0, 18:4n-3 and 14:0 and an inverse relationship with 22:6n-3 and temperature. In the second component, chlorophyll a and POM were directly correlated with 18:2n-6, 20:4n-6 and 20:5n-3, and inversely correlated with 18:0, 22:6n-3 and temperature. In the non-upwelling season, temperature showed a direct relationship with 22:6-3 and an inverse relationship with 20:5n-3 and 14:0. POM, Chl-a and UI showed a direct relationship with 16:0 FA and an inverse relationship with 22:6n.3, 20:1n-11NMID, 20:4n-6, 18:0 and temperature. This study shows how dominant oceanographic conditions in the upwelling and non-upwelling periods modulate FA levels in P. colymbus.
