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Pearson correlation coefficients (r) and p values for pairwise comparisons among the three data collection procedures for activity budget and diet
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We used data collected during two concurrent studies of black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) in Palenque National Park, Mexico, to compare systematically three methods of behavioral data collection [group activity scan sampling (group scans), instantaneous focal individual sampling (instantaneous focals) and continuous focal individual sampling (c...
Citations
... The accuracy of recording will depend on the size of the sample interval: the shorter it is, the more the record will approximate continuous recording (Altmann, 1974;Martin and Bateson, 1993). Furthermore, instantaneous time sampling may not be suitable for recording short or rare behaviors, since they are unlikely to occur at the instant of a sample point and, therefore, can be missed (Doran, 1992;Zinner et al., 1997;Rose, 2000;Amato et al., 2013;Van Belle, 2017). ...
... For example, group and focal time sampling gave higher estimates for more conspicuous behaviors such as feeding on fruits and moving when compared with continuous focal sampling in woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagothricha) (Stevenson and Quiñones, 2004). Similarly, group scan sampling gave higher estimates for moving time in black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) compared to focal continuous and time sampling (Amato et al., 2013). ...
... As expected, focal sampling gave significantly higher estimates for resting time and slightly higher estimates for social time. Similar findings were reported in black howler (Alouatta pigra) (Amato et al., 2013) and woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagothricha) (Stevenson and Quiñones, 2004). Although, we should take these similarities with caution. ...
The choice of behavioral sampling method can impact the outcome of data collection, however, few direct comparisons between methods have been made. We compared the performance of instantaneous group scan sampling (scan sampling) and focal continuous sampling with variable session durations (focal sampling) in estimating activity patterns, diet composition, and spatial proximity in seven groups of wild coppery titi monkeys ( Plecturocebus cupreus ) in Peruvian Amazonia. We used a series of paired samples Wilcoxon tests to compare daily proportions of time allocated to each type of activity/food/proximity category in each sampling method. In addition, we compared our results with those of other studies conducted on the same population of titi monkeys at other times. Focal sampling provided significantly lower estimates for moving time and significantly higher estimates for resting time compared to scan sampling, likely because scan sampling tends to give higher estimates of more conspicuous behaviors and lower estimates of less conspicuous behaviors. For diet composition, scan sampling gave similar results to other studies, while focal sampling gave significantly lower estimates for feeding on fruits and higher estimates for feeding on arthropods. The most likely reason is that focal sampling with variable session durations tends to overestimate behaviors during which a focal animal is less likely to go out of view, such as feeding on arthropods in the lower strata of the forest. Our results suggest that a pilot study comparing different methods should be conducted prior to collecting data, as not all methods are interchangeable.
... Focal individual sampling was conducted for 20 min in the morning and afternoon session to continuously record each bear's behaviour, frequencies, and duration of each behaviour throughout the observation duration. In this focal sampling, each of the individuals was sampled once before second observation being conducted on the same individual in same day (Amato et al. 2013). A total of 210 h baseline behavioural data was collected over approximately 36 weeks at different times of the day. ...
One of the main concerns for animals kept in captivity is expression of stereotypic behaviour which could indicate stress in the animals. To ensure the welfare of animals are adequate for conservation and to promote species specific behaviour that similar to those in the wild, most of zoos are implementing environmental enrichment. The effect of environmental enrichment on behavioural changes was studied in seven captive sun bears kept in an enclosure at Zoo Negara, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Bear behaviours are divided into three categories: Active, passive, and abnormal behavioural. The study involved three period: baseline, enrichment, and post-enrichment period. The activity budget was recorded as a single animal scan. A total of 210 h of baseline data was collected over 36 weeks at varying times of days. Three different environment enrichment tools were used; buoy with dog food, hidden fruit mixed with honey, and gunny sack filled with cinnamon powder. They were installed in the enclosures for 10 consecutive days on a rotational basis. Both enrichment and post-enrichment observations were done for 210 h using the same methods as in baseline sampling. Baseline data showed greater passive and abnormal behaviours than active behaviour. With the introduction of the enrichment tools, the sun bears displayed decreased passive and abnormal behaviours with an increment of active behaviour. For post-enrichment period, there was no significant difference when compared with the baseline between all behavioural categories. Among three enrichment tools, hidden fruit mixed with honey was the most preferred enrichment followed by buoy filled with dog food and gunnysack with cinnamon powder. It is suggested that food-based enrichment should be lasting until evening for the sun bear to engaged longer to the enrichment. Although less preferred, cinnamon powder introduction as sensory enrichment was recommended as well. However, it is crucial to ensure that the cinnamon’s odour lasting until late evening, where the bears are ready to enter their night den. It can be concluded that the application of various enrichment tools may help to alleviate abnormal behaviour in captive bears.
... During scan sampling, the observer records the activities of all individuals in a group at regular intervals 113 . Studies examining the validity and commensurability of these two methods have found that they provide comparable time budget estimates for non-human primates, though certain categories of behaviour (e.g., feeding time, social interactions) may diverge [114][115][116][117] . In humans, focal and scan sample data produced equivalent time budget estimates among Ache foragers 118 . ...
A key issue distinguishing prominent evolutionary models of human life history is whether prolonged childhood evolved to facilitate learning in a skill- and strength-intensive foraging niche requiring high levels of cooperation. Considering the diversity of environments humans inhabit, children’s activities should also reflect local social and ecological opportunities and constraints. To better understand our species’ developmental plasticity, the present paper compiled a time allocation dataset for children and adolescents from twelve hunter-gatherer and mixed-subsistence forager societies (n = 690; 3–18 years; 52% girls). We investigated how environmental factors, local ecological risk, and men and women’s relative energetic contributions were associated with cross-cultural variation in child and adolescent time allocation to childcare, food production, domestic work, and play. Annual precipitation, annual mean temperature, and net primary productivity were not strongly associated with child and adolescent activity budgets. Increased risk of encounters with dangerous animals and dehydration negatively predicted time allocation to childcare and domestic work, but not food production. Gender differences in child and adolescent activity budgets were stronger in societies where men made greater direct contributions to food production than women. We interpret these findings as suggesting that children and their caregivers adjust their activities to facilitate the early acquisition of knowledge which helps children safely cooperate with adults in a range of social and ecological environments. These findings compel us to consider how childhood may have also evolved to facilitate flexible participation in productive activities in early life.
... Observation refers to one animal's behavioural activity in a scan. The sampling protocol consisted of Instantaneous scan sampling conducted at a 15-min interval to record all individual activity data in two 3-hr segments each day, respectively, at 0900 -1200 and 1300 -1600 hr segment times [34][35]. No observations were made between 1200 -1300 hr as the increased human-animal encounters occurring during this hour, which probably affected the bears' behaviour. ...
Stereotypic behaviour is correlated to stress in wild animals in captivity. When wild animals are exposed to stress repeatedly, they may experience a chronic elevation of glucocorticoids (G.C.s), especially for captive sun bears. This study aimed to investigate the stress in captive sun bears by analysing the cortisol level using Faecal Glucocorticoid Metabolite (FGM) analysis before and after introducing environmental enrichments. 57 samples of faecal captive sun bears were collected from four selected study sites around Malaysia. The behavioural data were collected with an instantaneous sampling method. While for FGM analysis, glucocorticoids were analysed using enzyme immunoassays. As predicted, the stereotypic behaviour increased in pre and post enrichment and decreased during the enrichment period. For FGM analysis, the cortisol level was high in pre-enrichment and low in the enrichment period. In conclusion, the outcome of this study indicated that environmental enrichment might help reduce chronically elevated cortisol concentrations that are generally associated with distress in mammals.
... Similarly, measurement of multiple animals using a continuous method would have been incredibly challenging to document accurately, hence the method is often considered synonymous with the focal sampling of one individual 9,12 . Use of modern technology has in part ameliorated some of these issues by allowing behaviour to be recorded and analysed later 17 . However, continuous recording may remain a challenge, especially where large amounts of data are being recorded or direct comparisons of response frequencies and durations are made, and as such there is a need for alternative methods. ...
Behavioural research requires the use of sampling methods to document the occurrence of responses observed. Sampling/recording methods include ad libitum, continuous, pinpoint (instantaneous), and one-zero (interval) sampling. Researchers have questioned the utility of each sampling method under different contexts. Our study compared computerized simulations of both pinpoint and one-zero sampling to continuous recordings. Two separate computer simulations were generated, one for response frequency and one for response duration, with three different response frequencies (high, medium, or low) and response durations (short, medium, and long) in each simulation, respectively. Similarly, three different observation intervals (5, 50, and 500 s) were used to record responses as both pinpoint and one-zero sampling methods in the simulations. Under both simulations, pinpoint sampling outperformed one-zero sampling, with pinpoint sampling producing less statistical bias in error rates under all frequencies, durations, and observation intervals. As observation intervals increased, both mean error rates and variability in error rates increased for one-zero sampling, while only variability in error rate increased for pinpoint sampling. The results suggest that pinpoint sampling techniques are effective for measuring both frequency (event) and duration (state) behaviours, and that pinpoint sampling is a less statistically biased behavioural observation method than one-zero sampling.
... We compared daily activity budgets of individuals at Nankang and Banchangcalculated by aggregating scan samples per day, by individualto determine if there was a difference in the overall behaviour of the two groups. This aggregation method is used by primatologists to navigate non-independence between scan samples as day, rather than sample, becomes the unit of analysis (Amato et al., 2013;Frechette et al., 2017;Gilby et al., 2010;Hambali et al., 2012;Martin & Bateson, 2007). A total of 172 daily activity budgets were collected, however, 23 of these were discarded as they covered a period of less than five hours, or the individual was out-of-site for more than 40% of scans recorded that day. ...
Biodiversity is declining in part due to destructive and unsustainable human activity. Nature-based tourism, informed by scientific data, has the potential to replace some income generated by unsustainable practices. We observed two groups of Hoolock tianxing gibbons – one exposed to tourists and the other to small research teams – at Gaoligong National Nature Reserve, China. We found that H. tianxing gibbons spent significantly more time scanning and less time resting in the presence of tourists, and that these effects were amplified by the number of tourists. We did not find a difference in overall daily activity budgets of individuals exposed to tourism compared to individuals exposed to research teams, suggesting that behavioural changes are currently restricted to periods when tourists are present. Gibbon-focused tourism programs have the potential to contribute to conservation efforts and our study demonstrates that programs informed by scientific research can be an ethical and sustainable conservation tool.
... The method employed in observing the behavior of Long-tailed macaque in this study was the focal sampling method [11,12]. The focal sampling method is a method of recording the behavior of Longtailed macaque when they make sounds, by observing one individual who is the focus of observation in a certain time interval [13][14][15]. ...
The research was conducted in Mount Rinjani National Park, Lombok Timur, to observe the daily activities of Long-tailed macaque in utilizing their habitat and vocalization analysis as a hallmark of species. The Long-tailed macaque’ activities were analyzed using the scan sampling method. Ten (10) individuals of Long-tailed macaque were observed. The results showed that the observed activities of Long-tailed macaque were feeding, sleeping, inactive, grooming, mating, moving, excretion, playing, making sound, and agonistic (fighting). The average percentage of Long-tailed macaque observed was feeding (10.1%), sleeping (9%), inactive (9.4%), grooming (14.9%), mating (8.5%), moving (11.1%), excretion (7.9%), playing (9.7%), making sound (9.5%), and agonistic (9.9%). The daily activities can be as a reference in detecting the ‘species’ of the Long-tailed macaque . To support the population of this species, especially for long-term survival, the manager of the Rinjani Nasional Park should preserve the forest with conservation of natural forests and wildlife or biodiversity conservation and ecotourism, also prevent littering and illegal activities.
... Studies examining the validity and commensurability of these two methods have found that they provide comparable time budget estimates for non-human primates, though certain categories of behaviour (e.g. feeding time, social interactions) may diverge [98][99][100][101] . In humans, focal and scan sample data produced equivalent time budget estimates among Ache foragers 102 . ...
Understanding how socioecology affects contemporary children’s learning and work opportunities can help researchers better model the selection pressures which have shaped the evolution of human life history and social organization. Here, we compiled a global time allocation dataset for children and adolescents from hunter-gatherer and mixed-subsistence societies. We investigated how society-level variables including adult sexual division of labour, ecological risk, and climate related to variation in childcare, food production, domestic work, and play. We found that adult sexual division of labour predicted increased sex differences in time allocation, especially childcare. Children in safer ecologies allocated more time to childcare and domestic work, but ecological risk did not strongly predict participation in food production. Climate did not predict child and adolescent time allocation. We argue that by coordinating labour across age and sex, children may simultaneously learn to navigate challenges in their environment while safely participating in productive activities.
... The second widely-used approach is a roster-based design, whereby the researcher generates a list of all members of a population and then asks each participant to report whether they have a specific kind of relationship with each-and-every individual on the roster (Marsden, 2005). In exceptional cases, social networks can also be created from long-term ethnography or observation (see Ready et al., 2020a;DeTroy et al. 2021), focal or scan sampling (see Altmann, 1974;Amato et al. 2013), and direct GPS tracking or proximity detection (see Davis et al. 2018;Wood et al., 2021). Each of these methods carries their own costs and benefits. ...
Researchers studying social networks and inter-personal sentiments in bounded or small-scale communities face a trade-off between the use of roster-based and free-recall/name-generator-based survey tools. Roster-based methods scale poorly with sample size, and can more easily lead to respondent fatigue; however, they generally yield higher quality data that are less susceptible to recall bias and that require less post-processing. Name-generator-based methods, in contrast, scale well with sample size and are less likely to lead to respondent fatigue. However, they may be more sensitive to recall bias, and they entail a large amount of highly error-prone post-processing after data collection in order to link elicited names to unique identifiers. Here, we introduce an R package, DieTryin, that allows for roster-based dyadic data to be collected and entered as rapidly as name-generator-based data; DieTryin can be used to run network-structured economic games, as well as collect and process standard social network data and round-robin Likert-scale peer ratings. DieTryin automates photograph standardization, survey tool compilation, and data entry. We present a complete methodological workflow using DieTryin to teach end-users its full functionality.
... Therefore, in each scan, a total of seven bears' behaviour was recorded at Lok Kawi, and 15 bears' behaviour was recorded at the BSBCC. The sampling protocol consisted of Instantaneous scan sampling conducted at a 15-min interval to record all individual activity data in two 3-hr segments each day, respectively at 0900 -1200 and 1300 -1600 hr segment times (Altmann, 1974;Amato et al., 2013). ...
A comparative study on the daily activity budget of the sun bear was conducted in Lok Kawi Wildlife Park and Borneon Sun Bear Conservation Centre (BSBCC) Malaysia. The behaviour of 22 individuals was recorded using the Instantaneous scan sampling method. A total of 330 hr were collected, with 180 hr were collected at Lok Kawi Wildlife Park and 150 hr at BSBCC. Thirteen behavioural activities were recorded using the Ad-libitum sampling method in both captive and semi-captive bears, which were then grouped into three categories; active, passive, and abnormal behaviours classes and tabulated in an ethogram. Captive sun bears are kept permanently under human control, such as in zoos, while semi-captive sun bears are released to the forest during the day but kept in the cage at night. This study shows that semi-captive bears are significantly more active than captive bears. More passive and abnormal behaviours are present in captive bears. Stereotypic pacing scored the highest percentage of observation with 24% for abnormal behaviour in captive bears. Both captive and semi-captive bears showed a similar pattern of active and passive behavioural rhythms. The peak for active behaviours was from 1000 to 1100 hr, and the peak for passive behaviours was from 1300 to 1400 hr. In conclusion, although there was a difference in activities done between captive and semi-captive bears, the pattern of behavioural rhythms between both group of bears was similar. The introduction of enrichment programmes is crucial to captive bears to reduce stereotypic pacing behaviour.
