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Pattern of good decks (shaded), and bad decks (white) during standard administration of Phase 1 and the three shift periods of Phase 2.
Source publication
Although it might seem that people with schizophrenia would perform poorly on measures of emotion-based learning, several studies have shown normal levels of performance on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT; C. E. Y. Evans, C. H. Bowman, & O. H. Turnbull, 2005; L. M. Ritter, J. H. Meador-Woodruff, & G. W. Dalack, 2004; B. Shurman, W. P. Horan, & K. H. Nu...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... Score: Superior (4) to impaired (0). and D were advantageous ("good"; see Figure 1). The frequency of reward and punishment differed for each deck. ...
Context 2
... were explicitly informed that the nature of the game might alter such that "the rules about which decks are good and bad may have changed." Thus, after the 5 20 trial learning blocks (Phase 1) there were three shift periods, each consisting of 2 20 trial blocks (see Figure 1). Participants were informed about possible changes in contingencies before each shift began, though they received no information about the nature of these shifts. ...
Context 3
... Decks C and D had been good decks during Phase 1, Decks A and D, A and B, and B and C successively became good decks during the three shift periods of Phase 2 (see Figure 1). Thus, in these shift periods the participant had an emotion-based learning history of previous decisions (e.g., C and D still feel good) played off against the set of novel contin- gencies (A and C now are good). ...
Context 4
... findings were almost identical to those reported with the earlier age-and education-matched control group. In Phase 1, there was a main effect of block, F (3.2, 139.9) 24.07, p .001, and a main effect of group, F(1, 44) 14.5, p .001, but no Block Group interaction, F (3.2, 139.9) 1.4, p .05. Post hoc t tests revealed no significant differences in Blocks 1, 2, and 5, but significant differences for Block 3, t(44) 2.8, p .01, and Block 4, t(44) 2.6, p .05. ...
Context 5
... findings were almost identical to those reported with the earlier age-and education-matched control group. In Phase 1, there was a main effect of block, F (3.2, 139.9) 24.07, p .001, and a main effect of group, F(1, 44) 14.5, p .001, but no Block Group interaction, F (3.2, 139.9) 1.4, p .05. Post hoc t tests revealed no significant differences in Blocks 1, 2, and 5, but significant differences for Block 3, t(44) 2.8, p .01, and Block 4, t(44) 2.6, p .05. ...
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Citations
... These markers are greater before selecting from the disadvantageous decks, due to the poorer outcomes experienced, and this facilitates the shift to picking more from the advantageous decks. Further support that reversal learning is not the only necessary skill for successful IGT performance comes from Turnbull et al. (2006). People with schizophrenia have been shown to have difficulty with flexible behaviors, but performance in their emotion-based learning has more mixed results. ...
... People with schizophrenia have been shown to have difficulty with flexible behaviors, but performance in their emotion-based learning has more mixed results. To assess both these types of abilities in this patient group, Turnbull et al. (2006) employed the IGT. Participants initially played 100 trials of the original IGT but the good decks then shifted in three further 40-trial phases: Decks A and D, A and B, and B and C successively became good decks during the three shift periods. ...
Introduction
The Somatic Marker Hypothesis (SMH) posits that in experience-based choice, people develop physiological reactions that mark options as either positive or negative. These somatic markers aid decision making because they differentiate between “good” and “bad” options during pre-choice deliberation.
Methods
We examined this proposed role for somatic states in two decision-from-experience tasks (each N = 36) in which participants selected repeatedly with full feedback (i.e., for obtained and forgone outcomes) between two unlabeled options that returned wins or losses, with half receiving an additional summary of past outcomes. The probabilities of good and bad outcomes changed at an unannounced point. Participants completed a 100-trial game with a switch in the optimal option after trial 40 (Study 1) or a 200-trial game with switch points after trial 40 and trial 120 (Study 2). Skin conductance (SC) was measured continuously as an index of emotional intensity, from which we extracted measures of anticipatory SC (pre-choice) and outcome SC (post-choice).
Results
Participants reliably selected the optimal option prior to any switches. They also altered their choices appropriately when the payoffs changed, though optimal play following payoff switches was reduced. Losses resulted in a greater outcome SC than wins, but only in Study 1, as did the finding that the outcome SC was greater when the forgone outcome was positive. Anticipatory SC did not reliably predict optimal play in either study.
Discussion
These results provide little support for the SMH. Our studies point to the importance of using diverse tasks and measures and very large sample sizes when testing the role of somatic states in decision making.
... Despite extensive investigation of risky decision-making, there is no consensus as to whether SZ disorders are associated with impaired performance on the IGT. [32] concluded that show impaired IGT performance because a decreased ability to perceive risk-relevant information and to discriminate between "safe" and dangerous options [16,17,19] but not others [18,20,21,22,33]. In accordance with previous studies [34,35], SZ patients have decreased coping skills. ...
Psychiatry has shown a growing interest in the role of emotion in decision- making because emotion appears to make a substantial contribution to the decision- making process. There are no studies analyzing the relationship between affective decision-making and coping skills in schizophrenia (SZ). Our objective was to investigate the effect of coping skills on decision-making in SZ. We aimed to study the differences in coping styles, measured by the Behavioral Attitudes and Search Evaluation test (BASE), between good and bad performers on the Iowa Gambling Task (IGT). The 37 SZ participants and 46 healthy controls (HC) performed the IGT and BASE. Affective decision-making and coping skills are impaired among individuals with SZ compared with HC. A combination of two coping styles, such as preference for search activity and rejection of renunciation of search, was associated with better performance on IGT in both groups. We demonstrate that the association between coping style and performance on the IGT is not bidirectional. Coping strategies affect IGT performance, while performance on IGT does not affect coping style. In conclusion, participants with a more adaptive coping style were better decision-makers. One possible explanation for this association is that the more effective coping style may represent better functioning of the affective systems.
... Subjects with schizophrenia make more disadvantageous decisions than healthy controls in the IGT (Shurman et al., 2005;Kester et al., 2006;Turnbull et al., 2006;Sevy et al., 2007;Kim et al., 2009;2016;Cella et al., 2012;Brambilla et al., 2013;Fond et al., 2013;Pedersen et al., 2017;Betz et al., 2019;Woodrow et al., 2019), although occasional studies have failed to detect deficits (Evans et al., 2005;Rodríguez-Sánchez et al., 2005), possibly reflecting the heterogeneity of schizophrenia (Beninger et al., 2003;Bark et al., 2005). Turnbull et al. (2006), created an IGT version in which reward/ punishment contingencies associated with each deck were changed during the session, thus probing adaptive decision making. ...
... Subjects with schizophrenia make more disadvantageous decisions than healthy controls in the IGT (Shurman et al., 2005;Kester et al., 2006;Turnbull et al., 2006;Sevy et al., 2007;Kim et al., 2009;2016;Cella et al., 2012;Brambilla et al., 2013;Fond et al., 2013;Pedersen et al., 2017;Betz et al., 2019;Woodrow et al., 2019), although occasional studies have failed to detect deficits (Evans et al., 2005;Rodríguez-Sánchez et al., 2005), possibly reflecting the heterogeneity of schizophrenia (Beninger et al., 2003;Bark et al., 2005). Turnbull et al. (2006), created an IGT version in which reward/ punishment contingencies associated with each deck were changed during the session, thus probing adaptive decision making. Patients with schizophrenia who had high negative symptom scores, despite performing as well as controls in learning the basic IGT, showed difficulty in shifting responses when the reward/punishment contingencies of the cards were reversed. ...
... Patients with schizophrenia who had high negative symptom scores, despite performing as well as controls in learning the basic IGT, showed difficulty in shifting responses when the reward/punishment contingencies of the cards were reversed. This may be perseverative behaviour, with patients either over-relying on previously favourable decks, or else persistently avoiding decks previously learned to be unfavourable (Turnbull et al., 2006). Rodent cognitive tasks based on touchscreen hardware have been developed to maximise translational validity with corresponding human tasks (Bartko et al., 2011;Bussey et al., 2012;Nilsson et al., 2016a;2016b;Wulaer et al., 2018;Zeleznikow-Johnston et al., 2018;Liao et al., 2022). ...
In schizophrenia, subjects show reduced ability to evaluate and update risk/reward contingencies, showing correspondingly suboptimal performance in the Iowa gambling task. JNK signalling gene variants are associated with schizophrenia risk, and JNK modulates aspects of cognition. We therefore studied the performance of mice hemizygous for genetic deletion of the JNK activator MKK7 (Map2k7+/− mice) in a touchscreen version of the Iowa gambling task, additionally incorporating a novel contingency-switching stage. Map2k7+/− mice performed slightly better than wild-type (WT) littermates in acquisition and performance of the task. Although Map2k7+/− mice adapted well to subtle changes in risk/reward contingencies, they were profoundly impaired when the positions of ‘best’ and ‘worst’ choice selections were switched, and still avoided the previous ‘worst’ choice location weeks after the switch. This demonstrates a precise role for MKK7–JNK signalling in flexibility of risk/reward assessment and suggests that genetic variants affecting this molecular pathway may underlie impairment in this cognitive domain in schizophrenia. Importantly, this new contingency shift adaptation of the rodent touchscreen gambling task has translational utility for characterising these cognitive subprocesses in models of neuropsychiatric disorders.
... Some studies revealed that Sz cases preferred disadvantageous decks relative to advantageous decks (Beninger et al., 2003;Ritter et al., 2004;Shurman et al., 2005;Kester et al., 2006;Lee et al., 2007;Nakamura et al., 2007;Premkumar et al., 2008;Yip et al., 2009;Wasserman et al., 2012;Brown et al., 2013;Nestor et al., 2014;Matsuzawa et al., 2015;Kim et al., 2016). Other studies suggested that Sz cases and healthy subjects performed equally on the net score in IGT (Wilder et al., 1998;Bark et al., 2005;Evans et al., 2005;Rodríguez-Sánchez et al., 2005;Turnbull et al., 2006;Martino et al., 2007;Sevy et al., 2007;González-Blanch et al., 2008;Shirayama et al., 2010;Choi et al., 2011;Carvalho et al., 2012;Ayesa-Arriola et al., 2013;Premkumar et al., 2015;Pedersen et al., 2017;Glick et al., 2021) (See Supplementary Table 1). ...
... Taken together, most Sz-IGT studies typically adopted a net score to represent individual decision-making abilities to detect schizophrenic behavior pattern from the EV viewpoint (Bechara et al., 1994;Ritter et al., 2004;Evans et al., 2005;Rodríguez-Sánchez et al., 2005;Shurman et al., 2005;Kester et al., 2006;Turnbull et al., 2006;Lee et al., 2007Lee et al., , 2009Martino et al., 2007;Nakamura et al., 2007;Sevy et al., 2007;González-Blanch et al., 2008;Premkumar et al., 2008Premkumar et al., , 2015Kim et al., 2009Kim et al., , 2012Kim et al., , 2016Yip et al., 2009;Shirayama et al., 2010;Choi et al., 2011;Raffard et al., 2011;Struglia et al., 2011;Cella et al., 2012;Ayesa-Arriola et al., 2013;Brambilla et al., 2013;Fond et al., 2013;Hori et al., 2014;Nestor et al., 2014;Matsuzawa et al., 2015;Stratta et al., 2015;Zhang et al., 2015;Pedersen et al., 2017). The net score as a derivative measure drawing on the four decks A, B, C, and D might gloss over selections of each deck. ...
... Extensive analyses on a wide range of IGT outcome measures used in Sz-IGT studies show that EV measures are not suitable for discriminating the Sz group from the control group. This is consistent with several previously reported findings in relation to Sz (Wilder et al., 1998;Bark et al., 2005;Evans et al., 2005;Rodríguez-Sánchez et al., 2005;Turnbull et al., 2006;Martino et al., 2007;Sevy et al., 2007;González-Blanch et al., 2008;Shirayama et al., 2010;Choi et al., 2011;Carvalho et al., 2012;Ayesa-Arriola et al., 2013;Premkumar et al., 2015;Pedersen et al., 2017). Likewise, GLF measures cannot be discriminative behavioral measures, consistent with three studies that found no significant difference in GLF measures (Rodríguez-Sánchez et al., 2005;Kester et al., 2006;Carvalho et al., 2012;Brown et al., 2015). ...
Background: The Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) was established to evaluate emotion-based decision-making ability under uncertain circumstances in clinical populations, including schizophrenia (Sz). However, there remains a lack of stable behavioral measures regarding discrimination for decision-making performance in IGT between schizophrenic cases and healthy participants. None of the Sz-IGT studies has specifically verified the prominent deck B (PDB) phenomenon gradually revealed in other populations. Here, we provided a global review and empirical study to verify these Sz-IGT issues.
Methods: Seeking reliable and valid behavioral measures, we reviewed 38 studies using IGT to investigate decision-making behavior in Sz groups. The IGT, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), and clinical symptoms evaluations were administered to 61 schizophrenia or schizoaffective cases diagnosed by psychiatrists and 62 demographically matched healthy participants.
Results: There were no valid behavioral measures in IGT that could significantly identify the decision-making dysfunction of Sz. However, Sz cases, on average, made more choices from disadvantageous deck B relative to other decks, particularly in the later learning process (block 3–5). Compared to the control group, the Sz group was more impaired on the WCST. The high-gain frequency decks B and D showed significant correlations with WCST but no correlation between clinical symptoms and IGT/WCST.
Conclusions: Gain–loss frequency (GLF) has a dominant and stable impact on the decision-making process in both Sz and control groups. PDB phenomenon is essentially challenging to be observed on the ground of the expected value (EV) viewpoint approach on the IGT in both populations. Consequently, caution should be exercised when launching the IGT to assess the decision-making ability of Sz under a clinical scenario.
... Research has also incorporated standardized procedures such as the Wisconsin Card Sort Task (Berg, 1948) and the Contingency-shifting variant Iowa Gambling Task. (Dymond, Cella, Cooper, & Turnbull, 2010;Turnbull et al., 2006). Patterns of rule governed responding to contingency shifting procedures reflect differential histories of social mediated reinforcement for rule following per se (pliance) or rule following due to reinforcing coherence with the arrangement of the environment (tracking). ...
Relational Frame Theory (RFT) is the simplest form of operant theory since it claims nothing more than a particular type of behavior, arbitrarily applicable derived relational responding, is an operant. While the theory is simple, its implications are not, and adoption has been slow until recently. RFT was first formally described in 1985 and in the 35 years since, hundreds of studies have been conducted on relational learning from an operant point of view. The present paper briefly summarizes that history and examines some of its key claims. So far, the empirical program delineated by RFT has held up remarkably well. Future directions are delineated that will enable a more comprehensive evaluation of the importance of the RFT research program, and a more thorough exploration of its profound implications.
... The link between generalized pliance and insensitivity to contingencies has been tested recently thanks to the development of the Generalized Pliance Questionnaire and the Generalized Pliance Questionnaire-Children [31,32]. The GPQ has shown strong correlations with the performance on contingency-shifting tasks [33] such as the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task [34,35] and the Iowa Gambling Task [36,37]. Generalized pliance has also been associated with psychopathology because it increases the likelihood of the individual losing contact with relevant sources of positive reinforcement due to the insensitivity to contingencies effect [5,7]. ...
The concept of rule-governed behavior (RGB) has been used in the behavior-analytic literature as a way to analyze complex human behavior, including thinking and problem-solving. Relational frame theory suggests the existence of two main functional types of RGB termed pliance and tracking. In this paper, we describe the development of the Generalized Tracking Questionnaire (GTQ) and the preliminary evaluation of its psychometric properties and validity through four studies, with a total of 1155 participants. In Study 1, a pool of items describing the main characteristics of generalized tracking was designed and evaluated by experts on the RFT account of RGB. The resulting 11 items were administered to a group of 91 clinical psychology trainees to examine the understandability and validity of the item. All 11 items showed appropriate properties and were retained to constitute the GTQ. In Study 2, the GTQ was administered to 370 undergraduates to explore its factor structure. The results of the exploratory factor analysis indicated that all items exhibited good functioning and that the GTQ can also be seen as a unidimensional scale. In Study 3, the GTQ was administered online to a sample of 464 non-clinical participants and a clinical sample of 125 participants. The one-factor model of the GTQ obtained a good fit in the conducted confirmatory factor analysis. The GTQ showed measurement invariance across gender and clinical and nonclinical participants. It also obtained excellent internal consistency and correlated in theoretically coherent ways with other constructs. In Study 4, the GTQ and a neuropsychological battery of executive functions were administered to 105 participants. The GTQ showed statistically significant, medium-size correlations with working memory tests, verbal fluency, planning, and behavioral inhibition. In conclusion, the GTQ seems to be a promising measure to advance in the empirical analysis of functional classes of RGB.
... The findings on reward valuation in schizophrenia are similar to depression overall. Individuals with schizophrenia often do poorly on Iowa Gambling Task (e.g., Brown et al., 2015;Kim, Kang, & Lim, 2016;Kim, Lee, & Lee, 2009;Nestor et al., 2014;Zhang et al., 2015), though not always (e.g., Turnbull, Evans, Kemish, Park, & Bowman, 2006). Several studies also suggest impaired reversal learning in schizophrenia (e.g., Reddy, Waltz, Green, Wynn, & Horan, 2016;, though some studies have not (e.g., Jazbec et al., 2007), particularly when the difficulty of initial learning and reversal is made more similar (MacDonald et al., in submission). ...
Our ability as humans to engage in goal-directed actions that allow us to obtain outcomes that we desire is a core component of life satisfaction and achievement. Sadly, many forms of mental illness involve impairments in varying facets of motivation that are important contributors to the all too frequent impaired life function and reduced quality of life experienced by such individuals. As such, both the field of psychopathology research broadly and the Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) initiative have recognized the centrality of examining motivation and incentive processing in psychopathology. This review will focus on the types of motivational impairments seen in disorders such as depression and schizophrenia. Some individuals with depression do not engage in occupational, educational, or social behaviors that they might participate in when not depressed and may spend much of their time alone and engaged in very passive activities (sleeping, watching TV, etc.). Similarly, in schizophrenia, motivational impairments can also take the form of reduced efforts to engage in occupational, educational, or social experiences. In this review, we argue that elements of the final common pathway to impairments in motivation in depression and schizophrenia may be shared and are likely to involve deficits in what can be referred to as effort-cost decision-making (ECDM). This hypothesis suggests that a proximal cause of reduced engagement in occupational, educational, and social pursuits in both depression and schizophrenia is a reduced willingness to exert effort to obtain potentially rewarding or positive outcomes. However, we also argue that these ECDM deficits in depression and schizophrenia reflect differing distal mechanisms. More specifically, we argue that ECDM impairments in depression may be strongly related to reductions in hedonic experience of reward and pleasure, while ECDM deficits in schizophrenia may more strongly reflect difficulties with cognitive control and internal representation of future or past events and use of incentive information that is not currently available in the environment.
... The Contingency-Shifting Variant Iowa Gambling Task A computerized version of the csIGT Turnbull et al. 2006) measured the rapidity with which participants could adapt their behavior to new reward and punishment contingencies. The task consisted of 11 blocks of 20 trials each. ...
... In these phases, the reward and punishment contingencies of the decks were systematically modified: decks A and D, A and B, and B and C became advantageous at the beginning of blocks 6, 8, and 10, respectively. The csIGT demonstrates external validity in reflecting the fluctuating and complex nature of real-world experience ) and can differentiate between individuals who present with mental disorders which exemplify psychological rigidity and those who do not Turnbull et al. 2006). ...
... Moreover, no statistically significant correlation was found between performances on the WCST and csIGT in the current study. Heterogeneity in the tasks' cognitive demands and emotional outcomes may account for this disparity, as the WCST places greater cognitive demands on participants while the csIGT may provide more emotionally powerful feedback (Turnbull et al. 2006). The methodological heterogeneity between the previous research and the current study helps to answer the call of a recent systematic review by Kissi et al. (2017) for future research to implement alternative procedures to advance this research agenda. ...
Conceptual accounts of pliance, a particular class of rule-governed behavior, propose that its generalization precipitates insensitivity to direct contingencies. Accordingly, a context of mindfulness has been theorized to influence the way in which rules function and facilitate effective contact with such contingencies. Despite the profound implications of these conceptualizations, there is a dearth of empirical support for their claims. This study aimed to investigate self-reported generalized pliance as a predictor of sensitivity to changing schedules of reinforcement and mindfulness. Forty young adults completed the Generalized Pliance Questionnaire (GPQ), Contingency-shifting variant Iowa Gambling Task (csIGT), Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), and Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory—Short Form. Analyses revealed that higher scores on the GPQ were predictive of lower mindfulness and sensitivity to changing contingencies on the csIGT and WCST with medium to large statistically significant effect sizes. The findings support the aforementioned conceptual accounts and have implications for novel research in mindfulness.
... Although self-reports have wellknown limitations, they might be a way to select participants with generalized pliance as in Gutiérrez-Martínez et al. (2005) and Wulfert et al. (1994). Indeed, a recent study by O'Connor, Byrne, Ruiz, and McHugh (submitted) has used an English version of the GPQ and correlated its scores with two behavioral tasks that measure insensitivity to contingencies: the Iowa Gambling Task (csIGT; Dymond, Cella, Cooper, & Turnbull, 2010;Turnbull, Evans, Kemish, Park, & Bowman, 2006) ...
Empirical research on functional classes of rule-governed behavior has been scarce, which might be due to the absence of valid behavioral or self-report measures. We describe the development and initial examination of the Generalized Pliance Questionnaire (GPQ) through three studies with a total of 2127 participants. In Study 1, a pool of 77 items reflecting generalized pliance was designed. Thirty-eight of these items were rated as high-quality by at least one of two experts in RFT and were administered to 130 undergraduates. A preliminary version of the GPQ consisting of 18 items (i.e., GPQ-18) was obtained. In Study 2, the GPQ-18 was applied to 410 undergraduates. The results of the exploratory factor analysis showed that the GPQ-18 can be considered as a unidimensional measure and that all items showed good functioning. A shorter, 9-item version of the GPQ (i.e., GPQ-9) was also obtained. In Study 3, the GPQ-18 was applied to three samples, including large samples of undergraduates, the general population and a smaller clinical sample. Confirmatory factor analyses showed that the one-factor model obtained a good fit for the GPQ-18 and acceptable for the GPQ-9. Both versions of the GPQ showed excellent internal consistency and theoretically coherent correlations with a wide range of constructs. In conclusion, the GPQ seems to be a valid and reliable measure of generalized pliance.
... The findings on reward valuation in schizophrenia are similar to depression overall. Individuals with schizophrenia often do poorly on Iowa Gambling Task (e.g., Brown et al., 2015;Kim, Kang, & Lim, 2016;Kim, Lee, & Lee, 2009;Nestor et al., 2014;Zhang et al., 2015), though not always (e.g., Turnbull, Evans, Kemish, Park, & Bowman, 2006). Several studies also suggest impaired reversal learning in schizophrenia (e.g., Reddy, Waltz, Green, Wynn, & Horan, 2016;, though some studies have not (e.g., Jazbec et al., 2007), particularly when the difficulty of initial learning and reversal is made more similar (MacDonald et al., in submission). ...
As the 66th volume in the prestigious Nebraska Series on Motivation, this book focuses on understanding emotion and motivation as two factors that not only influence social and cognitive processes, but also shape the way we navigate our social world. Research on emotion has increased significantly over the past two decades, pulling from scholarship in psychology, neuroscience, medicine, political science, sociology, and even computer science. This volume is informed by the growing momentum in the resulting interdisciplinary field of affective science, and examines the role of emotion and motivation in our perceptions, decision-making, and social interactions, and attempts to understand the neurobiological mechanisms that support these processes across the lifespan in both healthy and clinical populations.
Included among the chapters:
• Emotion concept development from childhood to adulthood
• Evolving psychological and neural models for the regulation of emotion
• Pathways to motivational impairments in psychopathology
• A valuation systems perspective on motivation
• Reproducible, generalizable brain models of affective processes
Emotion in the Mind and Body is a comprehensive and compelling rendering of the current state of the interdisciplinary field of affective science, and will be of interest to researchers and students working in psychology and neuroscience, as well as medicine, political science, and sociology.
