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Regular resistance training has been shown to have many physiological and psychological health benefits. However, the underlying physiological processes are not yet fully understood. One explanation is that resistance training acts like an acute stressor and modulates physiological pathways that are associated with the stress response such as the s...
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Context 1
... overview of the participants' baseline levels of the physiological markers is provided in Table 1 and an overview about the training history is given in Table 2. All of the participants had been doing resistance training for at least 9 months (mean 3.8 ± 2.5 years) and trained at least twice a week (mean 3 ± 1 days/week). ...Citations
... One of the most notable effects of resistance training is its ability to favorably influence the individual's emotional management and mental health. Among other effects, habitual resistance training has been associated with both anxiolytic and antidepressant effects (Strickland and Smith, 2014;Gordon et al., 2018), and as mentioned previously, there is a clear relationship between resistance training and better management and reduction of stress perceived by students who practice it regularly (Becker et al., 2021). The benefits of resistance training on mental health are due to its biological effects described above and the improvements in different psychosocial domains that will be addressed in this section. ...
The connection between physical activity and cognitive function has become a focus of attention in educational research in recent years. Regular exercise has been shown to have significant positive effects on physical health, but it also appears to have a significant impact on cognitive function and academic performance. Of all the exercise modalities, resistance training has drawn interest for its ability to improve cerebral abilities in addition to physical well-being. However, there is limited available knowledge exploring the relationship between resistance training regimens and academic performance. This narrative review aims to investigate the underlying mechanisms linking resistance training to academic performance. Firstly, we will examine the biological mechanisms and psychosocial links that potentially connect resistance training to academic performance to find and describe the different mechanisms by which resistance training improves academic performance. In the next part of the work, we delve into the existing observational and intervention studies that have explored the relationship between resistance training and academic performance. Lastly, we provide practical recommendations for including resistance training in institutional education settings, emphasizing the need of dispelling myths and addressing barriers to increase participation as well as the relevance of considering key training variables and adaptation of protocols to developmental stages, always guided by a properly trained professional. Overall, the available evidence supports that resistance training provides potential benefits to the academic performance of youth students with many biological and psychosocial factors that explain this relationship. However, most of the studies are observational, and broader interventional studies are needed to understand and maximize the benefits of this type of physical exercise.
... Surprisingly, whilst data points to psychological benefits from engaging in resistance exercise [40,41], there is a scarcity of data exploring the physical and psychological burden of progressive strength training. To explain, resistance training acts as an acute stressor that leads to physiological responses within the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system that antedate psychological stress [42]. It has been argued that training in general should be viewed as a biopsychosocial process with complex physical and psychological interactions [43], and recall that recent insight from coaches highlights that stress responses are perceived to markedly affect athletes' response to training [35]. ...
Background
This study explored the deloading practices of competitive strength and physique athletes. A 55-item anonymised web-based survey was distributed to a convenience-based, cross-sectional sample of competitive strength and physique athletes (n = 246; males = 181 [73.6%], females = 65 [26.4%]; age = 29.5 ± 8.6 years) who had 8.2 ± 6.2 years of resistance training and 3.8 ± 3.1 years of competition experience.
Results
All athletes deloaded within training with energy and fatigue management being the main reasons to do so. The typical duration of a deload was 6.4 ± 1.7 days, integrated into the training programme every 5.6 ± 2.3 weeks. Deloading was undertaken using a proactive, pre-planned strategy (or in combination with an autoregulated approach) and undertaken when performance stalled or during periods of increased muscle soreness or joint aches. Athletes reported that training volume would decrease (through a reduction in both repetitions per set and sets per week), but training frequency would remain unchanged during deloads. Additionally, athletes reported that training intensity (load lifted) would decrease, and effort would be reduced (facilitated through an increase in repetitions in reserve). Athletes would generally maintain the same exercise selection during deloading. For athletes that supplemented deloading with additional recovery modalities (n = 118; 48%), the most reported strategies were massage, static stretching and foam rolling.
Conclusion
Results from this research might assist strength and physique athletes and coaches to plan their deloading. Future research should empirically investigate the findings from this study to further evaluate the potential utility of deloading in strength and physique sports.
... After the training session, an improvement in positive affect was observed. In addition, Corey et al. found that psychosocial stress improved with the use of restorative yoga (control group) versus a low-impact stretching intervention for individuals with metabolic syndrome (stretching group) 41) . For example, significant decreases after a 1-year follow-up were observed in salivary cortisol levels, chronic stress severity, and stress perceptions in the stretching group compared with the control group 41) . ...
... In addition, Corey et al. found that psychosocial stress improved with the use of restorative yoga (control group) versus a low-impact stretching intervention for individuals with metabolic syndrome (stretching group) 41) . For example, significant decreases after a 1-year follow-up were observed in salivary cortisol levels, chronic stress severity, and stress perceptions in the stretching group compared with the control group 41) . Chronic stressinduced cortisol dysfunction may contribute to the development of chronic pain 42) . ...
This cross-sectional study investigated the association between different types of physical activity (PA) and occupational psychological and physical stress responses among workers in Japan. Stress responses were assessed using the Brief Job Stress Questionnaire. Work-related PA (time spent sitting, sitting bouts, standing, walking, engaging in heavy labor, and moderate-to-vigorous PA [MVPA]) and exercise-based PA (frequencies [times/wk] of flexibility and muscle-strengthening activity, and walking) were measured using a questionnaire. Multiple linear regression was performed to examine the association between each type of PA and stress responses. Participants who engaged in >108 min/d of work-related MVPA exhibited a statistically significant association with higher psychological stress responses when compared to those who engaged in 0–42 min/d of work-related MVPA. For exercise-based PA, participants who engaged in flexibility activity or walking five or more times/wk, or muscle-strengthening activity one to three times/wk, demonstrated significantly lower psychological stress responses compared to those who did not exercise. Participants who engaged in flexibility activity five or more times/wok demonstrated significantly lower physical stress responses compared to those who did not exercise. This study suggests that work-related MVPA is associated with higher psychological stress responses, while exercise-based PA is associated with lower psychological or physical stress responses.
... Subjective stress was assessed with an established visual analogue scale (VAS; Becker et al., , 2021Becker et al., , 2022b) that asked participants to rate their level of perceived stress on scale from 1 to 10. The internal consistency in the current sample was α = .728 ...
... This issue is especially acute at the stage of specialized basic training during the selection of optimal means, methods and load parameters, which in the shortest possible time will allow to maximize the level of special strike training in horting and other similar types of martial arts. In Mixed Martial Arts and hand-tohand combat, a number of scientists made attempts to improve the strength training system of athletes using load regimes that differ in volume and intensity parameters [1,3,8]. At the same time, the problem of determining informative markers for evaluating adaptive and compensatory reactions of the body in different kinds of martial arts and for improving technical and tactical training, pre-competitive and competitive activities, has not been investigated. ...
... Changes in the Maximum Strength (1RM) Indicators of Both Group Participants Performing Control Exercises During 3 Months of the Study, n=40Note.1 -The difference compared to the previous results is significant according to the Wilcoxon test (p<0,05); 2 -the difference compared to the initial values is significant according to the Wilcoxon test (p<0,05); df is the number of degrees of freedom; p is the level of significance. ...
... Changes in the Number of Accurate Control Kicks on the Mannequin with the Maximum Force for 15 s by Both Group Participants During the Study, n=40Note.1 -the difference compared to the previous results is significant according to the Wilcoxon test (p<0,05); 2 -the difference compared to the initial values is significant according to the Wilcoxon ...
Purpose. To study the peculiarities of influence of power training loads including machine and free weights exercises on the development of maximum muscle strength of athletes in horting and on their level of training in strike fighting. Methods. We examined 40 sportsmen aged 20±1,2 engaged in horting. The study took place at the stage of specialized basic training and lasted 3 months. All participants were divided into 2 groups, 20 athletes in each group. Group 1 used machine exercises and group 2 used free weights exercises (barbells, dumbbells). The effectiveness of the proposed exercises in the specified modes of muscle activity was evaluated by the indicators of maximum strength development and level of training in strike fighting in horting. Biochemical analysis of cortisol concentration was used to assess their adaptive and compensatory reactions to a physical stimulus. Results. The research results showed that using machine exercises in conditions of anaerobic-glycolytic mode of energy supply contributed to the growth of average group indicators of maximum strength development by 44,8 % (р<0,05) in group 1 athletes. The same indicators increased by 45,1 % (p <0,05) in group 2 athletes who used free weights exercises on the background of anaerobic-alactate mode of energy supply. The special strike training results in horting showed that the most pronounced increase in the number of kicks with maximum force for 15 s was by 30,4 % (р<0,05) in group 2 athletes (according to the results of 3 control exercises). Group 1 athletes also showed positive dynamics, but with almost 4,5 times lower progression. At the beginning of the study group 2 athletes demonstrated decrease in cortisol concentration by 18,8 % (р<0,05), and group 1 athletes increased this indicator by 10.3% compared to the state of rest. The results revealed at the end of the study indicated that this hormone did not change its parameters in response to a physical stimulus. Conclusion. Using free weights exercises contributed to positive changes in control indicators of strike training in horting, despite almost identical increase in maximum strength parameters in both group athletes. Despite the compensatory reaction manifestations in response to power loads in the conditions of anaerobic-alactate mode of energy supply at the beginning of the study, we observed the process of long-term adaptation at the end of the study.
... In the present study, we divided social distance into three dimensions (friends, acquaintances, and strangers) and hypothesized that social distance modulated the promotion effect of acute social stress on moral decisionmaking, with a stronger promotion effect toward socially close people. In addition, salivary alpha-amylase and salivary cortisol are noninvasive markers of SNS activity and established markers of HPA axis activity in acute social stress response, respectively (Becker et al., 2021). As a result, we measured and analyzed cortisol and alphaamylase levels in saliva to uncover the differential effects of acute social stress on moral decision-making at different social distances. ...
Acute social stress has been shown to influence social decision-making. This study aimed to examine how social distance modulates the influence of acute social stress on young male moral decision-making. Sixty healthy male college students were randomly divided to be exposed to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) or a placebo version of the TSST (P-TSST) before they performed moral decision-making tasks. The results showed that participants under acute social stress showed obvious increases in subjective stress perception, negative affect, salivary cortisol, and alpha-amylase and made more altruistic choices for others compared to the control group. However, social distance regulates the promotion of this acute social stress, with the promotion effect being stronger in socially distant others. Furthermore, the interpersonal order difference of different social distances in altruistic decisions is smaller in low-conflict dilemmas than in high-conflict dilemmas. In addition, an increase in salivary cortisol was positively correlated with altruistic choices toward both acquaintances and strangers, whereas an increase in salivary alpha-amylase was only positively correlated with altruistic choices toward friends. The results suggest that social distance modulates the promotion of acute social stress on moral decision-making, which might stem from the divergent effects of cortisol and alpha-amylase.
... substrate reagent: α-amylase CC FS), as previously described by Becker et al. [29] as well as Rohleder & Nater [30]. Tests of within-subject effects were applied using two-way repeated-measures ANOVA (rmA-NOVA). ...
Human body odors contain chemical signals that play a key role in our non-verbal communication regarding health, genetic identity, immune system, fitness, and emotional state. Studies on human chemosignaling in individuals with psychiatric diseases are scarce but indicate altered smell perception and emotion recognition in depressed individuals. In the present project, we aimed to investigate the influence of chemosensory substances in social stress sweat on emotion recognition, perspective taking, affective responsiveness as well as stress level in healthy and depressed individuals. Therefore, chemosensory stimuli (sweat samples from Trier social stress test (TSST) and friendly-TSST (fTSST)) were obtained from 39 healthy participants (19 females). In a next step, chemosensory stimuli and an odor-free blank (cotton pad) were used to stimulate another group of 40 healthy participants (20 females) and 37 individuals with depression (24 females). Those stimuli were examined regarding their influence on subjective feelings of stress, emotion perception and empathic reactions using an empathy test. Furthermore, physiological data (breathing, heart rate, skin conductance response, stress hormones) of the participants were collected during chemosensory stimulation. Depressed individuals improved their ability of perspective taking and affective responsiveness for the emotion grief when presented with stress chemosignals compared to no chemosignals. Healthy individuals remained unaffected regarding perspective taking and affective responsiveness. Both depressed and healthy individuals showed no increased stress hormone cortisol and α-amylase values during the social stress chemosignals condition, but reduced values for fTSST condition compared to no chemosignals respectively. The results imply that stress chemosignals do not trigger a stress reaction, but for depressed individuals they lead to a better emotion assessment for grief. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the effects of social stress chemosignals on healthy and depressed individuals. Knowing the impact of human chemosignals on emotional processing is crucial for a better understanding of non-verbal human interaction.
... Identified differences between the growth of body circumference measurements of athletes depend primarily on the features of the load regime. Using various machine and free weight exercises is only an additional factor affecting the performance of athletes (Barnes et al., 2019;Becker et al., 2021;Martorelli et al., 2021). The variability of combining certain load regimes with machine and free weight exercises in order to achieve the maximum adaptation effect is of secondary importance. ...
Purpose. To evaluate the changes in circumference sizes of bodybuilders using machine and free weight exercises in conditions of different load regimes at the stage of specialized basic training. Methods. 64 bodybuilders aged 20±1.2 years were divided into 4 study groups. The stage of specialized basic training lasted 12 weeks. Group 1 and 2 participants used free weight and machine exercises in conditions of medium-intensity training load (Rа=0.58). Group 3 and 4 athletes performed the same exercises in conditions of high-intensity training load (Ra=0.71). The changes in circumference measurements (shoulder, hip and shin) were recorded every 30 days. Non-parametric methods of mathematical statistics were used in the study. The results. Using free weight exercises in the regime of high-intensity loads (Rа=0.71) contributed to the greatest increase in the body circumference (by 4.9%) compared to the initial data. The smallest increase in the controlled indicators (by 1.8%) was found in athletes using machine exercises in the regime of medium-intensity loads (Ra=0.58). Performing free weight exercises in different load regimes led to more than double increase in the body circumference measurements. The dependence of the controlled indicators dynamics on the load regimes was observed when using machine exercises. The dynamics of body circumference depends on the features of the training load regimes but not on the type of exercises. Conclusions. At the stage of specialized basic training in bodybuilding, the use of high-intensity training loads (Ra=0.71) was the main factor that affected the accelerated increase in body circumference of athletes. Combination of machine strength exercises with high-intensity loads allowed achieving the most pronounced adaptive changes.
... Поглиблене вивчення компенсаторних реакцій організму спортсменів, які займаються бодібілдингом, дозволило дослідникам деталізовано вивчити закономірності зміни нейро-гуморальних механізмів у відповідь на стресовий подразник залежно від інтенсивності, обсягу, спрямованості навантажень та етапу підготовки, рівня їх тренованості [8,9] В той же час, одним із дискусійних питань, які розглядаються в сучасному бодібілдингу, є ефективність використання тренувальних вправ на тренажерах та з вільною вагою обтяження [10,11]. Однак в доступній нам науковій літературі представлені досить суперечливі результати експериментальних досліджень, які суттєво відрізняються один від одного не лише за структурою програм занять, але й тенденцією до позитивних змін морфофункціональних показників спортсменів та особливостей адаптаційних змін в їх організмі [12][13][14]. В свою чергу, досліджень щодо ефективності поєднання різних за інтенсивністю та обсягом режимів навантаження та комплексів вправ на тренажерах чи з вільною вагою обтяження для визначення найбільш пріоритетного симбіозу подібних чинників системи підготовки в бодібілдингу не проводилось. ...
The purpose of the work was to study the peculiarities of changes in the indicators of the development of maximum muscle strength in bodybuilders under the conditions of using a complex of exercises on simulators and with free weight load against the background of load modes of different intensity. Materials and methods. 64 bodybuilders aged 20 ± 1.2 years participated in the study. To solve the set purpose, 4 research groups were formed. The duration of the pedagogical experiment was 12 weeks. During the pedagogical experiment, the representatives of the surveyed groups used a set of exercises with free weight load and on simulators against the background of load modes of different intensity. The dynamics of the maximum muscle strength indicators (on the example of the deltoid, biceps and triceps muscles of the shoulder) of athletes in the given conditions of muscle activity was determined in the process of control testing. Results and discussion. It was established that in the course of 12 weeks, in the athletes of groups 1 and 3, who used sets of exercises with free weight load, an increase in strength capabilities under the conditions of moderate intensity loads by 14.8% and 18.7% during high intensity power loads compared to initial data, was observed. It was revealed that among the representatives of groups 2 and 4, who in the course of the pedagogical experiment used a set of exercises on simulators during training, the indicators of the development of the maximum muscle strength of the controlled muscle groups on average show an increase in parameters by 16.5% against the background of the loads of the average intensity (Ra=0.58) and 20.7% – of high intensity loads (Ra=0.71) compared to the results fixed at the beginning of the study. It was investigated that even under the conditions of using a set of exercises with free weight load, but during the mode of high intensity loads, the development of maximum muscle strength of athletes is 2.2% higher, compared to the results recorded during moderate intensity loads on simulators for the same period of time. Conclusion. The use of predominantly strength exercises on simulators in the process of training activities in bodybuilding, especially in conditions of high intensity loads (Ra=0.71) against the background of a small amount of work, contributes to the greatest development of the maximum muscle strength of athletes, compared to the data revealed during control testing of the studied indicators in exercises with free weight load, regardless of the load modes
... An important aspect of improving the training system in this sport is the search for effective markers for assessing the adaptive-compensatory reactions of athletes to power training loads of different volume and intensity (Chernozub et al., 2020). Despite the use of a wide range of physiological, biochemical methods for diagnosing the body systems of bodybuilders, the problem of prompt correction of training loads and determining the optimal set of informative criteria for assessing adaptive changes and performance dynamics remains unresolved (Weakley et al., 2017;Becker, L & Semmlinger Rohleder, 2021). ...
... The peculiarities of changes in cortisol and LDH in the blood serum of athletes in the given training conditions, confirm the results of research in power fitness where different intensity training load regimes are used (Butova, & Masalov, 2009;Chernozub, & Radchenko, 2016). A significant decrease in cortisol concentration in the blood serum occurs in response to power loads with a large amount of work due to significant energy consumption and indicates the manifestation of compensatory reactions (Jones et al., 2016;Becker et al., 2021;Benavente et al., 2021). At the same time, in the given conditions of muscular activity, a significant increase in LDH activity also indicates a significant usage of energy resources and indicates the inadequacy of the load to the functional capabilities of the body. ...
Purpose: to study the features of the influence of training loads in bodybuilding with the sequential use of basic and isolation exercises on the nature of adaptive body changes in athletes. Methods. 60 bodybuilders aged 18 ± 0.23 were divided into 3 groups, which used different combinations of basic and isolation exercises at the stage of specialized basic training during 4 months. To determine the effectiveness of the proposed training programs on the nature of adaptive changes in the body of athletes we used morphometric parameters, indicators of bioimpedansometry and biochemical analysis of cortisol concentration and lactate dehydrogenase activity in the blood. Results. The pronounced adaptive changes for the period of research were observed mainly in athletes of the third group due to increase in the circumferential sizes by 7.7% (p <0.05) and increase in fat-free mass by 8.5% (p <0.05) and decrease in body fat by 9.1% (p <0.05). Representatives of groups 1 and 2 also had positive dynamics in circumferential sizes and body composition, but with a less pronounced progression over the same period. At the same time, the results of biochemical blood control indicated the manifestation of compensatory reactions in response to physical stimuli in bodybuilders of group 1, especially at the beginning of the study. Thus, group 1 athletes had a decrease in the cortisol concentration by 26.8% (p <0.05) on the background of a significant increase in LDH activity by 37.4% (p <0.05) in the blood almost to the upper limit of the norm. Athletes of groups 2 and 3 showed a safe increase in cortisol concentration and LDH activity in response to a stress stimulus. At the end of the study, we observed the effect of long-term adaptation mainly in group 3 athletes on the background of no significant changes in cortisol concentration and LDH activity in the blood serum in response to exercise, which indicated increasing the body resistance to the physical stimuli. Conclusion. Using the proposed mechanism of the training process correction at the stage of special basic training in bodybuilding allows to optimize the training load parameters as well as achieve pronounced adaptive changes in the body of athletes and their muscle growth.
