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Background
Policies restricting children’s exposure to unhealthy food marketing have been impeded by the lack of evidence showing a direct link between food advertising exposure and children’s energy intake and body weight. Food advertising exposure increases children’s immediate food consumption, but whether this increased intake is compensated fo...
Context in source publication
Context 1
... the 160 children enrolled in the study, six did not complete all six days of the camp, so their data were not included in the final analysis (Fig. 1). Table 2 depicts the completing participants' characteristics across the two media condition groups. The proportion of children with overweight or obesity in our study (16%) was lower than the NSW state average (23%) [26]. ...
Citations
... There is a great debate among parents, teachers, politicians, and marketers as to how the media contributes to the development of childhood obesity [1]. Recently, meta-analytic data [2][3][4] and literature reviews [1,5] summarizing a large corpus of empirical studies have suggested that children's confrontation with media content, particularly persuasive content-such as traditional TV commercials [6,7], product placements in movies [8], brand presentations in YouTube videos [9], or online advertisements [10,11]-impacts their food preferences and eating behaviors, particularly regarding the consumption of foods high in fat, salt, or sugar. ...
Background
Entertainment media content is often mentioned as one of the roots of children’s unhealthy food consumption. This might be due to the high quantity of unhealthy foods presented in children’s media environments. However, less is known about the role of the centrality of food placement, that is, whether foods are interacted with, consumed, verbally mentioned, or appear unobtrusively. We also lack longitudinal research measuring both children’s unhealthy and healthy food consumption behaviors as outcomes.
Objective
The aim is to connect content analytical data based on children’s actual media diet with panel data in order to explain children’s food preferences. Moreover, this study not only focuses on the amount of healthy and unhealthy foods children are exposed to, but also on how these foods are presented (ie, centrally or not). Furthermore, we looked at the question of how parental coviewing can diminish (or enhance) the effects of unhealthy (or healthy) food depictions, and we measured healthy and unhealthy consumption as dependent variables.
Methods
We conducted a 2-wave panel study with children and one of their parents (of 2250 parents contacted, 829 responded, for a response rate of 36.84%; 648 valid cases, ie, parent-child pairs, were used for analysis), with 6 months between the 2 panel waves. We linked the 2-wave panel data for the children and their parents to content analytical data for movies (n=113) and TV series (n=134; 3 randomly chosen episodes per TV series were used) that children were exposed to over the course of 6 months.
Results
There was no significant relationship between exposure to unhealthy food presentation and unhealthy (b=0.008; P=.07) or healthy (b=−0.003; P=.57) food consumption over time. Also, healthy food presentation was unrelated to unhealthy (b=0.009; P=.18) or healthy (b=0.000; P=.99) food consumption over time. However, there was a significant, positive interaction between unhealthy food presentation and presentation centrality on unhealthy food consumption (b=0.000; P=.03), suggesting that the effects of unhealthy food presentation rise with increasing levels of centrality. There was no interaction between unhealthy food presentation and presentation centrality on the consumption of healthy foods (b=0.000; P=.10). Also, exposure to healthy food presentation interacted with centrality (b=−0.001; P=.003). That is, when a healthy product was presented at maximum centrality, it led to less unhealthy food consumption in children. Coviewing did not interact with exposure to unhealthy foods when explaining unhealthy (b=0.003; P=.08) or healthy (b=−0.001; P=.70) food consumption.
Conclusions
We conclude that simply presenting more healthy foods is not sufficient to combat children’s unhealthy food preferences. Further regulations may be necessary with respect to representations of unhealthy foods in children’s media.
... Feedback loops also exist between outcomes along the hierarchy, such that consumption experiences of a food brand (say, at a celebration) influence brand affect. Further, marketing effects apply to both food products and brands, such that exposure to marketing for a specific brand will influence consumption of foods generally (88). The reactivity to embedded food cues in advertising model (see Figure 2) integrates these complexities (48). ...
... Two randomized controlled trials reported significant effects of social media influencer marketing of foods [via Instagram (N = 176) and YouTube (N = 151)] on increased food intake in UK children (32,34). Importantly, experimental research from Australia has shown that children (N = 160) do not compensate for this additional intake in response to food marketing exposure (including via digital media), suggesting that food marketing contributes to sustained energy imbalance that would, over time, lead to weight gain (88). ...
... Food intake is then measured to give grams or energy units consumed. A small number of experimental studies have also assessed the impact of food marketing exposures on children's diets, extending the study period to capture food intake at later meals (88). Because of their design homogeneity, meta-analyses of such experimental studies have been possible (14,45). ...
Food and nonalcoholic beverage marketing is implicated in poor diet and obesity in children. The rapid growth and proliferation of digital marketing has resulted in dramatic changes to advertising practices and children's exposure. The constantly evolving and data-driven nature of digital food marketing presents substantial challenges for researchers seeking to quantify the impact on children and for policymakers tasked with designing and implementing restrictive policies. We outline the latest evidence on children's experience of the contemporary digital food marketing ecosystem, conceptual frameworks guiding digital food marketing research, the impact of digital food marketing on dietary outcomes, and the methods used to determine impact, and we consider the key research and policy challenges and priorities for the field. Recent methodological and policy developments represent opportunities to apply novel and innovative solutions to address this complex issue, which could drive meaningful improvements in children's dietary health.
... 38 Increased ST leads to higher exposure to food marketing, which has been shown to increase snacking, particularly in overweight and obese children. 39,40 Children who were deemed at risk of abdominal obesity were less likely to meet the PA guidelines than children in the low-risk category; however, this association was not observed for BMI measure. While there are few child studies comparing associations between PA and WHtR and BMI, one study found that WHtR had a stronger inverse relationship with PA than BMI in adults. ...
Introduction : Limited data on 24-hour movement behaviors of children aged 5–8 years exist globally. We describe the prevalence and sociodemographic associations of meeting physical activity (PA), sedentary recreational screen time (ST), and sleep guidelines among children from 11 jurisdictions in the US-Affiliated Pacific region. Methods : Cross-sectional representative data from 1192 children aged 5–8 years living in the US-Affiliated Pacific region were drawn from the baseline 2012–2014 Children’s Healthy Living Program. Sleep and moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA were calculated from accelerometry. ST and sociodemographic data were collected from caregiver surveys. The percentage of children meeting the Asia-Pacific 24-hour movement guidelines for PA (≥60 min/d of moderate- to vigorous-intensity PA), sleep (≥9 and ≤ 11 h/d) and ST (≤2 h/d) were calculated. Generalized linear mixed models were used to examine associations with adiposity and sociodemographic variables. Results : Twenty-seven percent (95% confidence interval, 24.6–30.0) of children met integrated guidelines; 98% (96.2–98.0) met PA, 78% (75.4–80.0) met sleep, and 35% (32.6–38.0) met ST guidelines. Females (adjusted odds ratio = 1.40 [95% confidence interval, 1.03–1.91]) and those living in lower-middle-income jurisdictions (2.29 [1.49–3.54]) were more likely to meet ST guidelines. Overweight children (0.62 [0.40–0.96]), those aged 8 years (0.39 [0.22–0.69]), and children with caregivers of an education level of high school or beyond (0.44 [0.29–0.68]) were less likely to achieve ST guidelines. Children from midrange annual household incomes were less likely to meet combined guidelines (0.60 [0.39–0.92]). Conclusions : Three-quarters of children are not meeting integrated Asia-Pacific 24-hour movement guidelines. Future strategies for reducing ST and increasing integrated guidelines compliance are needed.
... Food advertising is a key element of the food environment that can impact childhood obesity, by influencing children's food preferences and choices, and dietary intakes [10][11][12].Exposure to food advertising increases unhealthy food and dietary energy consumption among children [13,14]. In one randomised controlled trial conducted with Australian children, exposure to unhealthy food marketing on television and in a branded game led to an additional 194 kJ consumed across a subsequent snack and lunch meal, compared to when non-food products were promoted in these media [15,16]. Over time, this energy surplus would be sufficient for the development of overweight in children [17]. ...
Background
Food marketing is a key factor that influences children’s dietary behaviors. This study assessed the nature and extent of food and beverage advertising on television (TV) in 2014 and 2022 in Thailand.
Methods
TV was recorded for one week in March 2014 and in May 2022 from 7-9am and 3-7 pm on weekends, and 3-7 pm on weekdays across two channels (64 h recorded each year). The nutrient profile model from Bureau of Nutrition, Ministry of Public Health Thailand was used to classify food and non-alcoholic beverages as: Group A (‘healthy’), Group B (‘less unhealthy’) or Group C (‘unhealthy’).
Results
In 2014, 475 food advertisements were identified, with on average of 6.3 unhealthy food advertisements per hour. In 2022, 659 food advertisements were identified, with an average of 9.2 unhealthy food advertisement per hour. In both time periods, the most frequently advertised food products were non-alcoholic beverages. The rate of unhealthy food advertising per hour of broadcast was significantly higher than for other moderately unhealthy and healthy foods, and was also significantly higher in 2022 than in 2014.
Conclusions
Food and beverage advertising on Thai television is predominantly promotes unhealthy foods and, in particular, sugar-sweetened beverages. Therefore, Thai Government should enact new legislation to protect children from food TV ads in order to control both the frequency and nature of unhealthy TV food marketing to protect the health of Thai children.
... It was observed that children sacrifice their main meals and increase their snack food consumption with the effect of food advertisements. The effect of orientation to these foods is seen rapidly in children who watch food advertisements 16 . Parents and then the child's immediate environment should be adequately informed about the negative effects of television and the media, which have a significant impact on children's eating habits. ...
... Some researchers suggest that excessive parental control should be avoided, as it may impede a child's development of self-regulated feeding practices, including recognizing hunger and satiety signals [57]. The parenting practices that have been most positively associated with children's eating behaviour are role modelling, parental encouragement, and moderate restriction [58,59]. ...
The family environment plays a crucial role in creating the health behaviours of children and youth. This study aimed to explore the attitudes of parents with children aged 7–12 who represent an influential environment for creating the eating behaviours of children. A qualitative study was conducted using focus-group interviews (FGI) involving 101 parents from various socioeconomic backgrounds. Three categories of parents were identified based on their level of involvement and awareness of nutrition: ‘aware’, ‘determined’, and ‘relaxed’. Among parents of 10–12-year-old students, an additional category, ‘distanced’ parents, was identified. The study revealed that parents require support in terms of providing compelling arguments and practical recommendations related to meals and reducing or eliminating their children’s consumption of sweets, snacks, fast food, and, in the case of older students, energy drinks. Parents reported that their children had a moderate understanding of the principles of proper nutrition. The majority of respondents viewed this knowledge as primarily theoretical and expressed a need for practical guidance and activities, which they believe should be offered by schools. To achieve positive outcomes in educational activities related to food and nutrition, it is essential to involve children, parents, guardians, teachers, and other school staff in these efforts.
... Children are easily attracted and provoked into consuming advertised foods regardless of whether they are beneficial for the body (Fitriyah, 2015). Nutritional imbalances are often found in advertised instant foods such as noodles which are easily obtained by children (Mink et al., 2010;Norman et al., 2018;Stuart et al., 2020;Vioreza & Supriatna, 2020). An analysis from Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) III in 2005 regarding diet revealed that a person who consumes instant noodles has a high intake of energy, fat, sodium, but has a low intake of protein, calcium, phosphorus, iron, potassium, and vitamins, when compared to people who do not eat instant noodles (Park et al., 2011). ...
Students' awareness to consume local food to live a healthy life while preserving the environment is part of ecoliteracy. This awareness can be developed pedagogically through the learning process in the classroom. This study aims to analyze the effect of utilizing Betawi local food on increasing students ecoliteracy during the implementation of Pancasila Student Profile Strengthening Project. It involved 120 fourth-grade students from four state elementary schools in East Jakarta with an age range of 9-11 years within the period of two months. The sampling technique used was purposive random sampling. This is pre-experimental research which employed a mixed-method approach consisting of quantitative and qualitative approaches to assess the increase in students' ecoliteracy in three aspects (knowledge, attitudes, and skills). The quantitative approach was used to measure the aspect of knowledge and attitudes using tests and questionnaires, respectively. The qualitative approach was used to assess the skills aspect using documentation studies and interviews. The findings revealed that the implementations of Pancasila Student Profile Strengthening Project with utilizing Betawi local food can increase ecoliteracy of elementary school students in the aspects of knowledge and attitudes. These findings are supported by qualitative results for the aspect of skills. The recommendation for this study is that teachers can utilize local food as a form of local wisdom in the surrounding area to effectively increase the ecoliteracy of elementary school students.
... About 95% of the advertisements used social media to promote their products, indicating the transmission change from advertising food on television to social media. Besides, nowadays, children may be exposed to advertisements on social media more than on television or other communication channels [31]. Social media marketing is less likely to be monitored and poses a significant challenge that requires global efforts [32]. ...
b> Introduction: Evidence showed that some food advertisements may encourage unhealthy dietary practices among children; therefore, regulatory developments were implemented to overcome this issue. Different countries control or ban unhealthy food advertisements marketed to children, whereas in Saudi Arabia, no regulations exist until now. Thus, identifying and analyzing food advertisements aimed at children is crucial for further implementation. Methods: A content analysis of food advertisements was obtained from the Saudi Food and Drug Authority advertisements electronic registration system (Ealan). The data extracted for this study consist of all Ealan system food advertisements’ requests targeted at children (<12 years) and collected over 16 months (from January 2020 to April 2021). We created a codebook to analyze the advertisements’ persuasive techniques. Results: Forty-one advertisements were analyzed; 58.5% were marketed as posters, whereas the rest (41.5%) were visual advertisements. About 95% of the advertisements were aimed to be marketed through social media, and 35% were aimed to be featured on television. The persuasive techniques used in the analyzed advertisements were children (73.2%), health claims (68.3%), and taste appeals (34.1%). In addition, milk powder products were among the most marketed food type (60.9%). Conclusion: This study found that the primary persuasive techniques used in children’s advertisements were children’s appearance, health claims, and taste appeals. Furthermore, most food companies chose social media to promote their products. We recommend designing preventive policies and restrictions to control children’s exposure to unhealthy food and making modifications to the system before implementing any further restriction.
... Purchase requests made by young children are most often for foods high in fat and sugar [25]. The sum of the evidence on food marketing highlights the "cascading effects" of exposure to food marketing on the development of positive brand/food attitudes, increased purchase intent and purchases of advertised food products, and excessive caloric intake that could potentially lead to weight gain [26,27]. ...
Background:
The food industry advertises unhealthy foods intended for children which in turn fosters poor diets. This study characterized advertising expenditures on child-targeted products in Canada and compared these expenditures between Quebec, where commercial advertising to children under 13 is restricted, and the rest of Canada, where food advertising to children is self-regulated.
Methods:
Advertising expenditures data for 2016 and 2019 for 57 select food categories and five media channels were licensed from Numerator. Products and brands targeted to children were identified based on their nature and the advertising techniques used to promote them. Advertising expenditures were classified as healthy/unhealthy using Health Canada's nutrient profile model. Expenditures per child capita aged 2-12 years were calculated and expenditures from 2016 were adjusted for inflation. Advertising expenditures were described by media, food category, year, and geographic region.
Results:
Overall, $57.2 million CAD was spent advertising child-targeted products in Canada in 2019. Television accounted for 77% of expenditures followed by digital media (18%), and the food categories with the highest expenditures were candy/chocolate (30%) and restaurants (16%). The totality of expenditures (99.9%-100%) in both Quebec and the rest of Canada in 2016 and 2019 were considered 'unhealthy'. Across all media channels (excluding digital), advertising expenditures were 9% lower in 2019 versus 2016. Advertising expenditures per capita were 32% lower in Quebec ($9.40/capita) compared to the rest of the country ($13.91/capita).
Conclusion:
In Canada, millions are spent promoting child-targeted products considered inappropriate for advertising to children. While per capita advertising expenditures for these products are lower in Quebec compared to the rest of Canada, they remain high, suggesting that Quebec's commercial advertising restrictions directed to children are likely not sufficiently protecting them from unhealthy food advertising.
... When a study included an experimental manipulation that was irrelevant to the aim of the current meta-analysis (e.g., use of a protective message [30]), only data from the control condition were used in the analysis (e.g., no protective message). Although all studies offered highly palatable, energy-dense food options to participants during or after exposure to advertising (e.g., chocolate, candy, or pizza), 4 studies also offered lower energy-density food options (e.g., fruits and vegetables [31,33,37,38]), and one study also offered a nonwater beverage (i.e., orange juice [33]). Therefore, the food intake outcome in the present analysis refers to overall intake, regardless of the energy-density of food or beverage consumed (except water). ...
... All articles based on within-subjects designs reported the randomization or counterbalancing of the condition order. Seven articles measured the impact of television commercials on consumption [20, 32-34, 38, 53, 54], 4 examined exposure to advergames [22,[29][30][31], one used both television commercials and advergames [37], and one studied exposure to YouTube vlogs from social media influencers presenting food products [52]. Most studies measured participants' consumption of snack items that were provided as part of the experiment (e.g., chocolate and jelly candy); except for 2 studies that used meal items (e.g., pizza) [20,32] and one that used both [38]. ...
... Studies with children were mostly in a school setting, except for 3 conducted in a laboratory [32,38,53] and one during school camp [37]. All 3 studies with adults were conducted in a lab setting. ...
Background
Food advertisements are ubiquitous in our daily environment. However, the relationships between exposure to food advertising and outcomes related to ingestive behavior require further investigation.
Objective
The objective was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of behavioral and neural responses to food advertising in experimental studies.
Methods
PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched for articles published from January 2014 to November 2021 using a search strategy following PRISMA guidelines. Experimental studies conducted with human participants were included. A random-effects inverse-variance meta-analysis was performed on standardized mean differences (SMD) of food intake (behavioral outcome) between the food advertisement and non-food advertisement conditions of each study. Subgroup analyses were performed by age, BMI group, study design, and advertising media type. A seed-based d mapping (SDM) meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies was performed to evaluate neural activity between experimental conditions.
Results
Nineteen articles were eligible for inclusion, 13 for food intake (n= 1303) and six for neural activity (n= 303). The pooled analysis of food intake revealed small, but statistically significant, effects of increased intake after viewing food advertising compared to the control condition among adults and children (Adult SMD: 0.16; 95% CI: 0.03, 0.28; P = 0.01; I² = 0.0%; 95% CI: 0.0%, 95.0%; Children SMD: 0.25; 95% CI: 0.14, 0.37; P < 0.0001; I² = 60.4%; 95% CI: 25.6%, 79.0%). The neuroimaging studies involved children only, and the pooled analysis corrected for multiple comparisons identified one significant cluster, the middle occipital gyrus, with increased activity following food advertising exposure compared to the control condition (peak coordinates: 30, −86, 12; Z-value: 6.301, size: 226 voxels; P < 0.001).
Conclusions
These findings suggest that acute exposure to food advertising increases food intake among children and adults and that the middle occipital gyrus is an implicated brain region among children. (PROSPERO registration: CRD42022311357)
Statement of significance
This systematic review and meta-analysis of neurobehavioral responses to food advertising indicated a statistically significant overall pooled effect of food advertising on food intake among both children and adults. This is a novel and relevant finding as previous work has only detected an effect of food advertising on food intake among children.
