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IoT supports a spectrum of applications, each of which has certain specific requirements. For instance, mission critical applications cannot tolerate delay in data transmission however simple monitoring applications are delay tolerant. The lifetime and performance of IoT sensor networks depend on the metric/constraint (ETX, Energy etc.) selected fo...
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Citations
... The Cooja simulator is specifically designed for WSN and is now an extensively used tool for the performance evaluation of RPL. EA-EPL is compared with OF0 and MRHOF in terms of different parameters, including power consumption, average churn, packet loss rate, packet reception rate, and average hop count (Gupta et al., 2021). The descriptions of each parameter are given below. ...
... Parent switching in the routing significantly affects the performance of the routing protocols, measured as average churn value (Gupta et al., 2021). The instability of the network can cause more processing time to stabilize the network and result in more energy consumption. ...
The growing ubiquity of Internet of Things (IoT) devices within smart homes demands the use of advanced strategies in IoT implementation, with an emphasis on energy efficiency and security. The incorporation of Artificial Intelligence (AI) within the IoT framework improves the overall efficiency of the network. An inefficient mechanism of parent selection at the network layer of IoT causes energy drain in the nodes, particularly near the sink node. As a result, nodes die earlier, causing network holes that further increase the control message overhead as well as the energy consumption of the network, compromising network security. This research introduces an AI‐based approach to parent selection of the Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy networks (RPL) at the network layer of IoT to enhance security and energy efficiency. A novel objective function, named Energy and Parent Load Objective Function (EA‐EPL), is also proposed that considers the composite metrics, including energy and parent load. Extensive experiments are conducted to assess EA‐EPL against OF0 and MRHOF algorithms. Experimental results show that EA‐EPL outperformed these algorithms in improving energy efficiency, network stability, and packet delivery ratio. The results also demonstrate a significant enhancement in the overall efficiency of IoT networks and increased security in smart home environments.
... In RPL, machines use a tree structure to send data between child and root nodes. This structure is called "Destination Oriented Directed Acyclic Graphs" (DODAG), where the root node is like a border router or a sink node (Gupta et al., 2021) The parent node is chosen dynamically using an objective function (OF) based on metrics like the distance between the node and the sink, the number of hops, and the Expected number of Transmissions (ETX). ETX represents the number of times a packet needs to be resent to reach the target node. ...
This assessment delves into the performance evaluation of the RPL protocol within Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). It provides a comprehensive overview of the protocol, detailing its underlying network, communication, and energy models, as well as assumptions about sensor nodes and their distribution. The evaluation employs quantitative methods supported by a simulation setup, utilizing the Cooja simulator. By defining and applying relevant metrics under diverse operating conditions, including varying network nodes and different network topologies, the study aims to offer insights into the RPL protocol's effectiveness offering valuable insights into the strengths and limitations of the RPL protocol under diverse conditions.
... Gupta et al. [9] proposed a generalised MRHOF-based algorithm for parent node selection and deciding the most optimal path to the sink node. The simulation results show that a hybrid routing metric can be more suitable for small networks, whereas a single link-based metric is more preferred for larger networks. ...
Internet of Things is an emerging paradigm based on interconnecting physical and virtual objects with each other and to the Internet. Most connected things fall into the category of constrained devices, with restricted resources (processing power, memory, and energy). These low‐power and lossy networks (LLNs) are known for their instability, high loss rates and low data rates, which makes routing one of the most challenging problems in low‐cost communications. A routing protocol for low‐power and lossy networks (RPL) is a proactive dynamic routing protocol based on IPv6. This protocol defines an objective function (OF) that utilises a set of metrics to select the best possible path to the destination. Minimum rank hysteresis objective function (MRHOF) and objective function zero (OF0) are the most basic OFs, where the first one selects the path to the sink based on the expected transmission count (ETX) metric, and OF0 is based on the hop count (HC). These two metrics prioritise either brute performance (i.e. ETX) or simplicity (i.e. HC). Therefore, using a single metric with an OF can either limit the performance or have an inefficient impact on load management and energy consumption. To overcome these challenges, a routing metric based on MRHOF OF which takes into consideration the link‐based routing metric (i.e. ETX) and node‐based metric (i.e. remaining energy) for route selection is provided. Expected transmission count remaining energy (ETXRE) is evaluated through 36 scenarios with different parameters. Preliminary results show that ETXRE outperforms ETX and RE in terms of end‐to‐end delay by an average of at least 17%, packet delay by 13% and consumes 10% less energy.
... Gupta et al. [13] investigated the impact of different metrics on the Minimum Rank Hysteresis Objective Function (MRHOF) for RPL. They observed that combining various metrics, including power consumption, ETX, hop count, inter-packet time, and PDR, led to a 24% increase in PDR, 39% decrease in power consumption, and reduced interpacket time. ...
Low power lossy networks (LLNs) are designed to enhance network lifetime byminimizing energy consumption. In this research, we focus on the routing pro-tocol for LLNs known as RPL and investigate the impact of different objectivefunctions on energy consumption. Previous studies have highlighted the impor-tance of objective function selection in optimizing energy efficiency in LLNs.However, there is still a need to thoroughly understand the effects of objectivefunctions on energy consumption in RPL. The primary objective of this researchis to compare the energy consumption of different objective functions in RPLfor various node configurations. We specifically evaluate Objective function 0, Minimum Rank Hysteresis Objective Function (MRHOF), MRHOF with energy(MRHOF Energy), and MRHOF with expected transmission (MRHOF ETX).Our research methodology involves simulating LLNs with varying numbers ofnodes and analyzing the energy consumption patterns of the different objectivefunctions. We also investigate the impact of alpha weighting as well as tricklealgorithm on the MRHOF algorithms. The results show that as the number ofnodes increases, the average power consumed gradually rises. Among the objec-tive functions under consideration, MRHOF Energy exhibits the highest powerconsumption, while MRHOF demonstrates the most efficient performance withsignificantly lower power consumption. Furthermore, our findings reveal thatMRHOF offers better energy efficiency compared to other objective functions,including MRHOF Energy and MRHOF ETX. The superiority of MRHOF isconsistent across different node configurations.
However, after experimenting on performance parameter like delay and through-put it is observed that the choice of objective function depends on the specificrequirements and trade-offs of the IoT application, with MRHOF offeringimproved network lifespan, OF0 prioritizing low delay and high throughputin smaller networks, and MRHOF ETX providing a balanced approach forscalability and trade-offs.
The significance of this research lies in its ability to provide valuable insightsinto the influence of objective function selection on energy consumption andperformance in low-power lossy networks (LLN). These findings serve as a guid-ing resource for the development and implementation of energy-efficient routingprotocols. By incorporating the recommendations from this research, LLN per-formance can be enhanced, leading to improved network longevity and overallefficiency. The research outcomes contribute to the advancement of LLN tech-nologies and pave the way for more sustainable and effective network solutionsin various IoT applications.
... In RPL, the construction of topology and selection of intermediate nodes for sending data are done based on the OF and routing parameters. 14,15,19 OF specifies how to calculate the node rank and also how to combine different parameters in the parent selection process. In basic RPL, 12 there is no standard for determining a specific OF or using a specific set of routing metrics. ...
... This allows the researchers to define the OF and its application metrics according to their needs. 18,19 But it is worth mentioning that choosing the suitable parameters for this purpose is a difficult task. In Solapure and Harish 14 and Lamaazi et al. 15 and Gupta et al. 19 and Diniesh et al., 20 some effective recommendations for the design of the OF are presented. ...
... 18,19 But it is worth mentioning that choosing the suitable parameters for this purpose is a difficult task. In Solapure and Harish 14 and Lamaazi et al. 15 and Gupta et al. 19 and Diniesh et al., 20 some effective recommendations for the design of the OF are presented. Solapure 14 and Lamaazi et al. 15 investigated the effect of various parameters on the RPL protocol. ...
The RPL protocol has been accepted by the Internet Engineering Task Force as the only routing standard for the Internet of things (IoT). Although RPL has been significantly used in IoT routing, it still has extensive challenges. One of the most basic challenges is related to the reliability of routing. The severe limitations of resources, wireless communication, and variable topology, along with other limitations of IoT, have caused reliability in these networks to be a challenging topic. However, in RPL, no measures are provided to support the reliability of routing. To improve this issue, in this article, RPL was improved based on reliability requirements, and a new protocol was proposed called the Reliability‐Aware Adaptive RPL routing protocol (RAARPL). RAARPL selects the parents based on the evaluation of various criteria related to reliability and forms the network topology. In addition, the conditions of the paths were also considered in the decision‐making so that the reliability depends on the paths and parents. In order to maintain stability, RAARPL had controlled the parent selection and children assignment in a way that will prevent errors as much as possible. The simulation results by Cooja and compared with CLRPL and RPL protocols in various scenarios indicated the high efficiency of RAARPL in improving the reliability of data exchange and successful delivery ratio, reducing the instability of topology and the network throughput.
... Nevertheless, one can find many ongoing pieces of research related to RPL which have proposed enhancements by optimizing objective function [19,20], introducing mobility [21][22][23][24], performance evaluation using real experimentation [25][26][27], etc. but primarily for IoT network [28]. RPL for the IoV network hasn't been much accentuated. ...
Routing Protocol (RPL) is treated as a standard protocol for Low power and Lossy Networks (LLNs). It was introduced by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Routing over Low Power and Lossy network (ROLL) working group to deal with routing challenges that occur in LLNs. It is noted that RPL permits optimization at several levels in the networks. RPL uses an objective function that helps in evaluating network performance. The objective function can be created using single or composite metrics. Literature reveals that single metrics-based objective function showed poor performance whilst composite metrics have demonstrated excellent performance, but still there is plenty of scope for further improvement. This paper shows an extension of the composite metrics. The real problem of RPL concerning IoV is that the heterogeneous network undergoes extreme packet loss and congestion which disables the full utilization of network capacity. Thus, this paper presents an enhanced fuzzy-based objective function and analyzes its impact on the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) network. The objective function aims at reducing the Control Traffic Overhead (CTO) in the network and providing a high Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR).The contribution of this paper is as follows: First, network scalability is analyzed for (a) random and grid configurations; (b) random and Self-similar Least Action Walk (SLAW) mobility models. Second, the performance of the proposed E-MOF is validated with the standard objective functions for both networks. Third, extensive computer simulations are performed for performance analysis. Simulation result reveals that the proposed E-MOF outperform OF-EC concerning the PDR, CTO and comparable latency at the expense of high energy consumption for both configurations and mobility models. Finally, it is remarked that E-MOF extends the applicability of the RPL for IoV networks. Further, it commits a better PDR Quality of Service (QoS) and high network reliability. The results and discussion reported in this paper are outstanding, therefore, they will motivate other researchers to develop a novel approach in the future.
... For example, using MRHOF with a latency metric permits RPL to find stable paths with minimum latency from nodes to the DODAG root. Using MRHOF with the ETX metric permits RPL to find stable paths with minimum ETX from nodes to root in a DAG instance [82]. If there is no metric in the DMC option in the DIO messages, the MRHOF defaults to utilizing ETX to calculate the rank. ...
In the course of time, the Internet of Things (IoT) has attracted significant research interest. However, IoT devices have limited resources available in terms of battery power, processing capacity, memory, bandwidth, etc. In an attempt to provide connectivity and Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) support to IoT devices, the IPv6 routing protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) was officially launched as the standard routing protocol for IoT in 2012. Despite being reputed and used in diverse applications, several recent studies have revealed RPL's drawbacks and limitations. The main objective of this work is to help the IoT research community understand all aspects of RPL. The paper also provides a detailed description of the operation of the RPL protocol. What is more, this work includes novel and thorough examples, thereby gaining practical knowledge of the pros and cons of this protocol. In addition, this paper reviews and summarizes relevant RPL-based protocols and conducts comprehensive comparisons among them from the perspectives of reliability, robustness, energy efficiency, and flexibility. Technically speaking, after studying and reviewing the majority of the proposed RPL solutions, we are ultimately capable, in this work, of highlighting all the challenges faced by IoT researchers while enhancing RPL and providing what is expected to be dealt with professionally. The present work also gives more details about RPL simulation platforms and RPL applications. Not only to this extent, but rather the historical bibliometric analysis of RPL, which shows the trends in the area of research to be focused on, has been professionally analyzed based on RPL challenges over the years 2010 and 2021. To this end, the conclusions and recommendations of this study are presented along with the effective directions for future RPL, and their applicability. As a result, the authors believe that this work will be a valuable reference for all RPL researchers and designers.
... At any given time interval, a node can serve for a single DODAG, but it can be a part of one or more DODAG instances. Thus, in any DODAG, the participating nodes collectively forward data toward the root node [37]. The root of the DODAG can act as a gateway as well as a data sink. ...
... -Rank value of a node plays a vital role in creating the loop-free and optimal topology [37]. The rank attack consists of manipulation of the legitimate rank value of a node [40] to falsify its original location in the network topology. ...
... The rank attack consists of manipulation of the legitimate rank value of a node [40] to falsify its original location in the network topology. -Due to the default functionality of the RPL protocol, if an attacker node changes its rank value, all of the corresponding child nodes are affected [37]. It happens because every node has to respond to the received DIO message and act accordingly to change its rank. ...
Routing Protocol for Low Power and Lossy Networks (RPL) is the only standard protocol that assists the routing process in Low Power and Lossy Networks (LLNs) - based Internet of Things (IoT) applications. However, due to the resource-constrained nature, lack of physical protection and security requirements of the inherent protocol, LLNs are vulnerable to attacks that primarily alter the working of the RPL protocol and disrupt the ongoing communication. Therefore, it is a high profit and desperate target of many attackers. Our work offers a detailed overview of one such significant threat to RPL known as the rank attack. Considering the resource-constrained nature of the IoT devices, we propose and evaluate a lightweight and efficient method to mitigate and isolate the rank attack. Specifically, our approach uses a novel Echelon Metric Based Objective Function (EMBOF) over the default RPL to calculate and check the legitimacy of the advertised rank. The Echelon value is additively determined by the root node and the corresponding parent node(s) in the RPL network topology. Our approach not only detects the attacker node(s) but also isolates it immediately. We implement and evaluate our approach through extensive simulations in Cooja, a Contiki operating system (OS) based simulator. The results of our experiments show the viability of our proposal concerning detection accuracy, isolation latency, packet delivery ratio, end-to-end delay, power consumption and memory overhead.
The rapid advancement of technology and the advent of IoT technology which can connect everything around us is one of the most exciting breakthroughs all around the world. The need to handle thousands of fixed and mobile nodes in this network in addition to meeting several strict constraints have made the researchers start addressing the different challenges of this technology. One of the most significant challenges in this regard is providing an efficient and optimized routing protocol which on one side is able to manage the mobility of nodes and dynamic topology of this network and on the other side it can take the different aspects of the network performance into account. The aspects such as energy constraint for the battery-powered nodes, traffic congestion and end-to-end delay. One of the well-known routing protocols which has been proposed and standardized during recent years for IoT networks is RPL. Although this method works well and can support different types of IoT networks, it still suffers from various drawbacks particularly for mobile networks which cause the algorithm not to work effectively and efficiently. In this research, we present a new routing algorithm called V-RPL, which can outperform many of the proposed routing algorithms in terms of packet delivery ratio (PDR), end-to-end delay and energy consumption. The proposed algorithm is based on RPL and takes multiple parameters into account, simultaneously and utilizes AHP and VIKOR techniques for multi-criteria decision making to find the best possible route for each node in a mobile network. The performance of V-RPL has been evaluated in different situations using Contiki simulator and obtained results signify a remarkable improvement in different aspects compared to other proposed algorithms.
