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1 Panorama of human evolution within the context of the general phylogeny of Primates. At the basis of the Figure, the black ellipse represents the ancestral organisms preceding Primates, which are out of the analysis of this study. Within the Anthropoideae, the Hominidae diverged from the Hylobatidae some 35 millions of years (my) ago. Within the lineage of Hominidae, Orangutans diverged some 12 my ago, Gorillas some 9 my ago, and Chimpanzees nearly 8 my ago. Humans lineage includes the most ancient fossil of Orrorin tungenensis (6 my old), several species of Australopithecus, and several species of Homo, a genus originated 2.3 my before the present. Homo sapiens , the species of current humans, appeared on the planet approximately 200,000 years ago somewhere in central Africa, and all human races and variants recognised at present have common ancestors in the earliest African populations of Homo sapiens
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Humans include several species of the genus Homo that are able to design strategies for transforming ecosystems. The oldest remains of this process is the fabrication of tools, approximately 2.5 millions of years before present. Humans originated from Primate relatives through evolutionary processes whose principles explain evolution of all living...
Citations
... Conversely, the available resources in managed landscape contribute to modulate the peoples' lifestyles, costumes, social interactions, and culture (Boege 2008;Toledo and Barrera-Bassols 2008;Casas et al. 2015). ...
... Management practices act on individual organisms modifying their populations, and landscapes are transformed by changes in their biophysical conditions as a consequence of their utilization. Conversely, the available resources in managed landscape contribute to modulate the peoples' lifestyles, costumes, social interactions, and culture (Boege 2008;Toledo and Barrera-Bassols 2008;Casas et al. 2015). ...
Peoples’ knowledge about their natural surroundings is tightly linked with practices to appropriate natural components, ecological processes, and ecosystems, and to their cosmovision. Peoples and their surroundings are mutually transformed through management practices and the influence of landscapes on peoples’ culture. A portion of the peoples’ knowledge is codified by languages as names, classification systems, word meanings, and the contexts in which these words are pronounced. The loss of languages, therefore, leads to the risk of losing an essential part of peoples’ memories. Santa María Ixcatlán is a town located in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico, with a population of nearly 500 inhabitants, with an alarming risk of disappearance of the Ixcatec language (only eight Ixcatec speakers) and the loss of knowledge about the environment that it implies. Ethnobotanical documentation may contribute to safeguarding the invaluable memory of the Ixcatec people. In this chapter, we provide a summary of our records about the people-plant interactions in this town. Our study attempts to understand how a rich biocultural legacy has been built in one of the most biodiverse zones in the semiarid mountains of Mexico. Also, to knowing the challenges the Ixcatec people face to maintain this legacy and provide an account of the ways in which they confront them. We reviewed the literature with information about the Ixcatec people and their interactions with plants, and analyzed the published and unpublished results of ethnobotanical and ethnoecological work conducted by our research team from 1999 to the present. In Santa María Ixcatlán, agriculture is the axial activity around which all other productive activities and the community’s ceremonial life are organized. Local farmers grow the basic staple foodstuffs consumed throughout the year like maize, beans, and supplementary crops like wheat and squash. They also manage edible weedy plant species that are essential for the local gastronomy. They use a total of 627 plant species to satisfy food, medicine, construction, handcrafts, fodder, and other needs. We analyze these aspects in this chapter. In addition, they manage 401 species through practices for ensuring their availability including tolerance (206 spp.), protection (251 spp.), transplanting (139), enhancement (34 ssp.) and ex situ propagation (155 spp.), and the gathering of 299 spp., and the foraging of 243 spp. by livestock. People mentioned 94 plant names corresponding to 129 species that are considered essential for living, and we centered our attention on these species. The Ixcatec ethnobotanical knowledge is possibly the most deeply documented in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán region. However, we identified a process of loss of local knowledge associated to the substitution of local products for others, the loss of knowledge codified in the Ixcatec language, and the high rate of migration, especially the young people. Improving the conditions of interchange through organizational processes as well as the innovation of productive practices to generate profitable products is a viable way to enhance people to remain linked to the community. We refer to the initiatives of Xula Palma Artesanal collective and the Ixcateco collective brand, which have provided new opportunities to improve the lives of some households and demonstrated to be effective to maintain appropriate ways to manage plants and vegetation and to value the Ixcatec culture. For the members of Xula and Ixateco, their experience may be the base to strengthening customs and cultural aspects that give identity to their products. This illustrates the importance of documenting, understanding the local productive processes through ethnobotanical studies, so that the work of ethnobotany contributes to the well-being of communities and to support the local efforts to improve life and maintain the valuable biocultural heritage of the Ixcatec people.
... Human management consists of a series of deliberate actions undertaken to transform ecological systems into socioecological systems, following the requirements and interests of the societies to which they belong (Lindig and Casas 2013;Casas et al. 2014Casas et al. , 2015. Management also means manipulating populations of target species to ensure their availability by selecting for attributes desired by humans (Casas et al. 1997(Casas et al. , 2007Blancas et al. 2013Blancas et al. , 2014. ...
... Management also means manipulating populations of target species to ensure their availability by selecting for attributes desired by humans (Casas et al. 1997(Casas et al. , 2007Blancas et al. 2013Blancas et al. , 2014. This process, called domestication, generates morphological, physiological, and genetic divergences between populations of managed organisms and their wild relatives, known as domestication syndromes (Schwanitz 1966;Harlan 1975;Casas et al. 1999Casas et al. , 2015Gepts 2003). Changes in allelic and genotypic frequencies between wild and managed populations are commonly detected, such that wild relatives of domesticated species commonly possess high levels of genetic diversity accumulated over hundreds of thousands to millions of years of natural evolution (Doebley et al. 2006;Casas et al. 2007;Pickersgill 2007). ...
Across the process of domestication, human selection produces changes in target attributes as well as changes that are not necessarily desired by humans due to pleiotropic or linked genes. In this paper we addressed, correlated changes between genetic diversity, damage level, defense mechanisms (resistance and tolerance), and fitness due to the domestication process of Stenocereus pruinosus (Otto ex Pfeiff.) Buxbaum and Stenocereus stellatus (Pfeiff.) Riccobono, an endemic columnar cactus of south-central Mexico. One hundred eighty individuals of S. stellatus from wild, in situ managed, and cultivated populations of Valle de Tehuacán and Mixteca Baja, Puebla, were sampled, and attributes including damage level, defense mechanisms and fitness (number of fruits) were measured. The DNA of 176 individuals was extracted to amplify and analyze five microsatellites in order to estimate genetic diversity and structure. As expected, cultivated populations showed a significantly higher damage level, as well as lower resistance and genetic diversity. Depending on the form of management, correlations between genetic diversity and the rest of the attributes exhibited different patterns. In wild populations, genetic diversity was positively correlated with damage and negatively with resistance; in situ managed populations exhibited the opposite pattern, and in cultivated populations, no correlations were found between these attributes. We propose a hypothetic model of human selection to explain the variation in these correlations. No differences in genetic diversity and tolerance were detected between regions; however, the populations of Valle de Tehuacán exhibited more damage and more resistance. In both regions, populations showed a positive correlation between fitness and resistance and a negative correlation between damage and resistance, suggesting the existence of a defense mechanism to ensure fitness. Also, non-regional differentiation suggests an eventual gene flow due to pollinators, human movement of branches, or a common ancestry before the domestication process.
... In this regard, our use of the term "functions" refers to those operating in socio-ecological systems at scales from sections of agroecosystems to the landscape [19,[27][28][29]. Functions derive from the ecological, economic and social system dimensions, as well as their interactions, such as learning about agrobiodiversity [23,26,30,31]. Ecological functions refer to the functions that also occur in natural ecosystems, such as nutrient cycling, enhancing rainwater infiltration in soils, generating distinct micro-climates and providing habitats to species. ...
... Aldasoro-Maya [39] assigns the connotation of "contemporary" to these localized bodies of knowledge, emphasizing that although having roots in tradition, they also reflect interactions with other forms of knowledge, cultures and temporality, thus updating their suitability for the actual management of agrobiodiversity conservation. Multifunctionality knowledge is a part of these continuously actualized localized bodies of contemporary knowledge and contributes to the maintaining and renewing of biocultural diversity [24,31,40] and the diversification, updating and adaptation of socio-ecological systems such as home gardens [2,41,42]. ...
... Agrobiodiversity in our sample of 20 HGs in Tabasco was quite high (279 species) as compared to the findings in other studies in México [65,66] and the tropics in general [2,3,11,24,37,67]. The richness of species native to Mesoamerica and the Neotropics and the fact that 21 species are listed in national and international conservation categories confirm HGs' high relevance for regional conservation of agrobiodiversity as well as ongoing species domestication [2,25,31]. The many uses of plant species distinguished by the home garden owners (33, Additional file 3) and the presence of many cultivars of HG species that are adapted to the regional environmental conditions reflect how the knowledge on functions of HGs is very much alive. ...
Background:
Home gardens (HGs) are hotspots of in situ agrobiodiversity conservation. We conducted a case study in Tabasco, México, on HG owners' knowledge of HG ecological, economical and socio-cultural multifunctionality and how it relates to agrobiodiversity as measured by species richness and diversity. The term multifunctionality knowledge refers to owners' knowledge on how HGs contribute to ecological processes, family economy, as well as human relations and local culture. We hypothesized a positive correlation between owners' multifunctionality knowledge and their HGs' agrobiodiversity.
Methods:
We inventoried all perennial species in 20 HGs, determined observed species richness, calculated Shannon diversity indexes and analysed species composition using non-metric multidimensional scaling (NMDS). Based on literature, semi-structured interviews and a dialogue of knowledge with HG owners, we catalogued the locally recognized functions in the ecological, economic and socio-cultural dimensions. We determined the score of knowledge on each function in the three dimensions on explicit scales based on the interviews and observed management. We determined Spearman rs correlations of HGs' observed species richness, Shannon diversity index (H) and of HGs' scores on NMDS-axis and multifunctionality knowledge scores. We dialogued on the results and implications for agrobiodiversity conservation at workshops of HG owners, researchers and local organizations.
Results:
HG agrobiodiversity and owners' multifunctionality knowledge in the study area showed large variation. Average richness was 59.6 perennial species, varying from 21 to 107 species, and total observed richness was 280 species. A total of 38 functions was distinguished, with 14, 12 and 12 functions in the ecological, economic and socio-cultural dimensions. Total multifunctionality knowledge scores varied from 64.1 to 106.6, with an average of 87.2. Socio-cultural functionality knowledge scores were the highest, followed by scores in the ecological and economic dimensions. Species richness and Shannon H were significantly correlated with ecological functionality knowledge (rs = 0.68 and P < 0.001 in both cases), and species richness was also correlated with economic functionality knowledge (rs = 0.47, P = 0.03). Species composition scores on the first and second axes of NMDS was significantly correlated with knowledge of ecological multifunctionality, with rs = 0.49 resp-0.49 and P = 0.03 in both cases. Other functionality knowledge scores showed no correlation with NMDS scores. Dialogue in workshops confirmed the interwovenness of multifunctionality knowledge and agrobiodiversity.
Conclusion:
The rich agrobiodiversity of home gardens cherished by rural families in Tabasco relates with the knowledge about HG functionality in the ecological and economic dimensions. Also, species composition relates with ecological functionality knowledge. The socio-cultural functionality knowledge, which includes many elements beyond the individual HG, is not correlated with agrobiodiversity, but had the highest scores. Our results show that multifunctionality knowledge provides many opportunities for the participative conception and planning of policies and actions necessary to conserve agrobiodiversity.
... From ethnobiological research, social-ecological patterns have been identified at the local level, for example at the level of traditional classification [3][4][5][6][7], plant species domestication and manipulation [8,9], the use of wildlife [10] and edible fungi [11], among others. However, although such patterns are evident at a local level [12,13], few larger scale studies analyze them. ...
From local level ethnobiological research, patterns have been identified in the relationships between human groups and natural resources. Although these patterns are consistent, they are unknown at a wider spatiotemporal scale, as well as the variables and the causal mechanisms that originate them. One of the factors that could be influencing the lack of study of social-ecological patterns is the ignorance of new macro-scale analysis perspectives; as well as the absence of a semantic, conceptual, and analytical framework. For this reason, it is proposed to establish a semantic-conceptual framework of areas in which ethnobiology can be developed at a macro-scale, which is the application of meta-analysis and the development of macro-ethnobiology. Both perspectives develop larger-scale research (space-time) and are based on the analysis of local information (primary information), identify variables, use statistical analysis, and determine processes and patterns by analyzing data heterogeneity. However, both disciplines have different goals, as well as the use of analysis tools. For the adequate development of any of these two approaches in ethnobiology, it is essential to conceptually know the discipline, select the primary information under quality criteria, fulfill with the theoretical assumptions of statistical tests, make an adequate interpretation of data variation and have the support of experts. It is not about proposing new disciplines, but broadening the study approach of ethnobiology, revaluing primary information, analyzing variables together and identifying social-ecological processes and patterns. We consider that on a broader scale, the analysis is workable for the understanding of social-ecological relationships.
... Hominidae are divided into two subfamilies: Hominines includes the genus Homo [9][10][11], and the subfamily Australopithecines, includes four genera. ...
... The interrelationships between humans and the biota can also be understood or explained from an evolutionary perspective. Studies involving species domestication provide evidence that human manipulation of certain species in the past has changed their evolutionary history (Salick 1995;Parra et al. 2012;Casas et al. 2015). In addition, human practices directed toward the environment have influenced our own evolutionary history. ...
... One of the components that emerges from these relationships is Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), which represents the dynamic set of knowledge, practices, and beliefs of human groups towards the environment (Berkes et al. 2000) as generated by the interactions between humans and the environment. Other emerging characteristics are the different types of management strategies found in social-ecological systems that are also based on TEK (see Casas et al. 2015). In this sense, EE attempts to address (1) the factors that shape the characteristics that emerge from the interaction between humans and the environment (e.g., TEK and the types of management strategies) and (2) how these interactions affect humans as components of the environment with which they interact (e.g., biota); this reflects a conceptual model that considers the cyclical nature of the interactions between humans and the environment. ...
... Biocultural traits are a dynamic combination of cultural and biological information and may behave differently from other cultural traits, and intrinsic characteristics can bias the transmission and learning of these traits 5. Ecology, Evolution, and Genetics The classical approaches of these scientific fields have been used in different ways to understand the relationship between humans and the biota. These areas investigate how our actions towards nature can affect the distribution, abundance, ecology, and evolution of species with which we interact, as observed in studies on plant domestication (Salick 1995;Casas et al. 2015), or how the distribution of a species can affect the way we interact with it (Thomas et al. 2009;Albuquerque et al. 2015c). The major challenge for a research program in EE is to consider these relationships as bidirectional, i.e., of reciprocal influence, and model these relationships from the mathematical/statistical or conceptual point of view. ...
Many scientific fields investigate the relationship between humans and nature from different perspectives and with a wide range of questions. These fields include, for example, human ecology, human behavioral ecology, and evolutionary psychology, and they are linked through the fact that they all adopt ecological and/or evolutionary hypotheses to understand this phenomenon. In this paper, we define for the first time the field of evolutionary ethnobiology, which seeks to understand these relationships in a broad perspective, considering an interdisciplinary program that integrates the advances, tools, and insights from different scientific fields. This theoretical and methodological integration is necessary for the formation of theoretical bases in ethnobiology and in other areas that investigate the relationship between humans and nature.
... La domesticación es un proceso por el cual las poblaciones de plantas experimentan una serie de cambios fenotípicos y genotípicos, que suelen ser graduales y continuos, como consecuencia de la reproducción diferencial de los individuos favorecidos por los seres humanos, elección humana o selección artificial segun Darwin (1859). Este favorecimiento puede ser consciente o inconsciente, y ocurre en relación con la adecuación fenotípica de estos genotipos a las necesidades, preferencias y prácticas de uso y manejo de los grupos humanos que los utilizan (Darwin, 1859;Colunga-GarcíaMarín y Zizumbo-Villarreal, 1993;Gepts, 2004;Pickersgill, 2007;Casas et al., 2014Casas et al., , 2015aCasas et al., , 2015b. Al conjunto de rasgos, o características, que diferencia a las plantas domesticadas de sus ancestros silvestres, se le conoce como síndrome de domesticación. ...
Resumen Las prácticas de aprovechamiento y manejo humano de plantas, como la domesticación, pueden tener efectos evolutivos sobre las mismas. Para Darwin, las plantas y animales domes-ticados fueron fundamentales en la construcción de su teoría y en la actualidad siguen siendo objeto de estudio sobre biología evolutiva. La domesticación es un proceso evolutivo conti-nuo de selección artificial por humanos que puede determinar divergencias entre poblaciones silvestres y cultivadas. Al conjunto de rasgos, o características, que diferencia a las plantas domesticadas de sus ancestros silvestres se le conoce como síndrome de domesticación, y estos rasgos, al estar sometidos a fuerzas selectivas similares, constituyen una expresión de convergencia evolutiva. Estas tendencias han sido documentadas en decenas de especies domesticadas, así como en sus parientes silvestres; entre ellas se encuentra el caso del árbol de las maravillas: los agaves. Los agaves han sido de mucha importancia para las culturas indígenas americanas debido a los diversos usos que se le han dado desde hace, aproximadamente, 10 000 años; razón por la cual decenas de ellos han llegado a domesticarse, y aún en la actualidad encontramos vigentes muchas prácticas de manejo, uso y domesticación. Presentamos una revisión de distintos casos de estudios con agaves, con el propósito de documentar las consecuencias y evidencias etno-botánicas, morfológicas, ecológicas y genéticas que ha tenido la interacción humano-agaves en el continente americano. Documentamos las distintas características de los síndromes de domesticación, así como los usos del agave destacando los más actuales y la problemática aso-ciada a ella. Identificamos cuatro principales usos: 1) alimento, 2) fibra, 3) bebidas sin fermentar y fermentadas, y 4) bebidas destiladas, siendo esta última la de mayor importancia actual. Ade-más, se documentaron las características del síndrome de domesticación en cada caso. Existen 1 Dedicado a Catarina Illsley Granich. Amiga entrañable que, con amor y alegría, trabajó incansablemente a favor de los mezcaleros artesanales tradicionales de México y el patrimonio biológico y cultural que nos han legado. Gran ejemplo.
... Desde hace aproximadamente cinco o seis millones de años, los ancestros más antiguos del linaje evolutivo de los humanos modernos, Orrorin tugenensis y Australopithecus spp. (Johanson y Maitland, 1981;Senut et al., 2001;Casas et al., 2015a) vivieron de la recolección de recursos vegetales, animales muertos y carroña dejada por los grandes carnívoros (Heinzelin et al., 1999;Leakey, 2000). Hace aproximadamente dos millones de años Homo habilis y algunos australopitecinos fabricaban ya herramientas que les permitieron eficientizar el aprovechamiento de recursos vegetales y animales y posiblemente desarrollar técnicas de caza para alimentarse (Leakey et al., 1964;Leakey, 1994;Leakey, 2000). ...
... La agricultura, como se ha discutido en capítulos previos, es el resultado del manejo de los ecosistemas (la domesticación del paisaje) que tiene varias decenas de miles de años de antigüedad, y el manejo de la diversidad genética (la domesticación de poblaciones por selección artificial de acuerdo con los conceptos darwinianos), un proceso que es más reciente; la más antigua es quizás de alrededor de 11 000 años (Casas et al., , 2015a(Casas et al., , 2015b. La integración de ambas estrategias de domesticación se aplica también para entender la ganadería, la piscicultura, la apicultura y otros sistemas que surgieron para producir y domesticar con mayor estabilidad hace aproximadamente 11 000 años en el Medio Oriente y unos mil años después en otras partes del mundo. ...
... La evidencia arqueológica es una fuente primaria de información para contestar estas preguntas, pero también lo son las investigaciones etnográficas y etnobiológicas del presente que permiten analizar cómo ocurren los procesos de domesticación en la actualidad (Casas et al., , 2007(Casas et al., , 2015b. En el mismo sentido, los estudios ecológicos, genéticos y filogeográficos permiten aportar detalles para una comprensión detallada de procesos actuales y pasados (Casas et al., 2015a(Casas et al., , 2015b. La información del presente resulta clave para descifrar procesos que ocurrieron en el pasado, y para los cuales existe información fragmentaria recopilada en las excavaciones arqueológicas. ...
Desde hace aproximadamente seis millones de años, los ancestros más antiguos del linaje evolutivo de los humanos modernos, Orrorin tugenensis y Australopithecus spp. vivieron de la recolección de plantas y carroña dejada por los grandes carnívoros. Hace aproximadamente dos millones de años el Homo habilis y algunos australopitecinos fabricaban ya herramientas. Hace 1.8 millones de años el Homo erectus utilizaba el fuego y herramientas líticas como puntas de flecha y de lanzas, lo que sugiere su actividad como cazador sistemático. Las herramientas del Homo neanderthalesis y las del Homo sapiens incluyen un amplio repertorio de elementos cada vez más refinados y especializados para la caza y la pesca. Los restos arqueológicos de entre 15,000 y más de 10,000 años en distintas partes del mundo incluyen evidencias de consumo de plantas, pero la dieta estaba constituida predominantemente por elementos que proveía la cacería. Diversos autores muestran que el aumento de la biomasa humana se correlaciona significativamente con el decremento de la biomasa de la megafauna de mamíferos hasta hace 12,000 años, lo que sugiere fuertemente una relación entre la extinción de megafauna y la cacería. La extinción de una porción significativa de megafauna significó un tránsito progresivo hacia una dieta basada en la recolección de recursos vegetales y la cacería de animales medianos y pequeños. El consumo de vegetales, granos y tubérculos estuvo continuamente presente, pero durante miles de años la dieta basada en la carne de las piezas de caza y pesca fue predominante. Fue solo hasta la extinción marcada de la megafauna que aumentó su papel en la dieta humana. La integración del manejo de ecosistemas y domesticación permite entender el origen de la agricultura, la ganadería, la piscicultura, la apicultura y otros sistemas que surgieron para producir recursos hace aproximadamente 11,000 años en el Medio Oriente y unos mil años después en otras partes del mundo. La mayor parte de los autores que han analizado los factores que motivaron la adopción de la agricultura han propuesto que las presiones en la disponibilidad de recursos, fueron los principales motivos para producir alimentos y controlar así su disponibilidad. Estudios etnobiológicos sobre la domesticación en la actualidad confirman que aún en el presente una de las principales preocupaciones que motivan a manejar organismos es asegurar su disponibilidad. Otros autores han sugerido que la agricultura resultó principalmente de una evolución en la tecnología de manejar plantas, y eventualmente el manejo de los mecanismos evolutivos de las plantas, favoreciendo los fenotipos domesticables. Un proceso similar es desde luego aplicable en el desarrollo de sistemas de crianza sistemática y, eventualmente, en la selección artificial de animales. Otros autores han propuesto modelos holísticos, complejos,
... y disposici?n, de elementos bi?ticos y abi?ticos en localidades, regiones, pa?ses o continentes (Casas et al., 2015 ...
EDITORES Se reúne en este volumen material de lectura para apoyar el curso " Domes-ticación y Manejo in situ de Recursos Genéticos " , organizado desde 2006 por la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM) y la Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina (UNALM). Incluye reflexiones y teorías sobre los procesos de domesticación a escala de poblaciones biológicas, una aproxi-mación evolutiva darwiniana explica la diversificación de recursos genéticos a lo largo de la historia. Asimismo, teorías sobre la domesticación de ecosis-temas, paisajes y territorios. Es un esfuerzo multidisciplinario para comprender los mecanismos de domesticación que generan diversidad genética, la apreciación de ésta como recursos para la solución de problemas, el manejo in situ y ex situ de los recursos genéticos y de los territorios que los alojan desde una perspec-tiva sustentable. Es una mirada retrospectiva que busca entender los oríge-nes y la historia de los procesos que dieron origen a la agricultura, el manejo de fauna y de microorganismos, todos ellos expresiones bioculturales cruciales de los pueblos del Nuevo Mundo. Pero es también una búsqueda por comprender los problemas actuales, particularmente los de erosión genética, los cambios ecológicos y culturales que ponen en riesgo el patrimonio biocultural, los problemas legales que afectan los derechos de propiedad intelectual, la biopiratería y el saqueo ilegal de recursos, así como la destrucción global de los ecosistemas. Es un intento por analizar la crisis ambiental mundial severamente ligada a la deforestación, a la industrialización y a la visión desarrollista que adquirió su mayor impulso después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial y que han acele-rado como nunca en la historia planetaria los procesos de destrucción del mundo contemporáneo. Es un intento por entender los procesos destructi-vos y contribuir a detenerlos, así como identificar los procesos que favore-cen la conservación y el uso sustentable de la diversidad genética, las espe-cies y los ecosistemas y contribuir a impulsarlos. Domesticación en el continente americano VOLUMEN
