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This article describes a brief history of chemical warfare, which culminated in the signing of the Chemical Weapons Convention. It describes the current level of chemical weapons and the risk of using them. Furthermore, some traditional technology for the development of chemical weapons, such as increasing toxicity, methods of overcoming chemical p...
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Immunoassay based on antigen-Antibody interaction plays an important role in the screening of low molecular mass organic contaminations such as pesticides, veterinary drugs and biological toxins. However, due to the lack of epitope groups of haptens, the production of antibodies with high affinity is still one of the bottlenecks of immunoassay for...
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... The development, production, stockpiling, and use of these CWAs have been prohibited worldwide by the Chemical Weapon Convention (CWC) enforced by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), The Hague, Netherlands. At present 193 countries including India are signatories to CWC [3]. ...
... The Salisbury and Navalny incidents involved the alleged use of a group of nerve agents known as Novichok agents, often referred to as the fourth generation of CWAs [1][2][3]. These agents are particularly insidious due to their high potency and delayed onset of symptoms, making detection and treatment challenging. ...
The study focused on employing Molecular Dynamics Simulations to determine the dipole moment of Novichok A-agents, which are notorious as Chemical Warfare agents. These simulations were conducted at the level of isolated molecules, allowing for a focused analysis of the dipole moment's behavior within the agents. Molecular Dynamics Simulations were chosen as the primary tool for estimating the dipole moment due to their unique advantages. By simulating the behavior of molecules in a virtual environment, MDS provides a quick and efficient means of estimating crucial properties. This is particularly significant for substances like Novichok A-agents, which are associated with high toxicity and extreme sensitivity, making traditional experimental methods challenging. The simulations were executed on isolated molecules, an approach that simplifies the analysis and enables a more direct examination of the dipole moment's characteristics. This focused perspective contributes to the accuracy of the results and offers insights into the agents' charge distribution and interactions.
... Over a hundred analogs were allegedly synthesized and tested (Tucker 2006;Halamek and Kobliha 2011). Consistent with Mirzayanov, the typical nerve agent alkoxy substituent (-OR) on the central phosphorus atom is replaced in the case of A-agents by a nitrogen substituent (Pitschmann 2014;Franca et al. 2019). The first compound, substance-84/code designation A-230, is a sarin derivative, with an acetamidine moiety replacing the O-isopropyl group. ...
... Mirzayanov (2008) also estimated the hydrolysis half-life of A-234 at pH 6.5-7.4 to be moderate, i.e., 10-30 days. Several studies describing A-agent properties only referred to Mirzayanov's observations (Halamek and Kobliha 2011;Pitschmann 2014). Nepovimova and Kuca (2018) published a complex overview of A-series agent properties, including boiling point, density, state, behavior at low temperatures, volatility, and moisture stability. ...
"Novichok" refers to a new group of nerve agents called the A-series agents. Their existence came to light in 2018 after incidents in the UK and again in 2020 in Russia. They are unique organophosphorus-based compounds developed during the Cold War in a program called Foliant in the USSR. This review is based on original chemical entities from Mirzayanov's memoirs published in 2008. Due to classified research, a considerable debate arose about their structures, and hence, various structural moieties were speculated. For this reason, the scientific literature is highly incomplete and, in some cases, contradictory. This review critically assesses the information published to date on this class of compounds. The scope of this work is to summarize all the available and relevant information, including the physicochemical properties, chemical synthesis, mechanism of action, toxicity, pharmacokinetics, and medical countermeasures used to date. The environmental stability of A-series agents, the lack of environmentally safe decontamination, their high toxicity, and the scarcity of information on post-contamination treatment pose a challenge for managing possible incidents.
... Chemical warfare agents (CWAs) form one of the most dangerous categories of chemical substances in the modern world since the potential risk includes harm to people and society. There should be a high level of global awareness concerning CWAs since a small number of incidents have occurred in recent years [2,3], and many tones of these substances are still unaccounted for [4], especially after the collapse of the former Soviet Union. Novichok agents specifically belong to the general category of nerve agents and the fourth generation of CWAs [5,6]. ...
The flexible models of Novichok agents (A230, A232, and A234) from previous molecular dynamics simulations (MDSs) have been employed to create a parameter set for the Antoine equation of each of the three liquids. Furthermore, for the needs of this paper, new models of Novichok agents were created and studied via MDS due to the fact that the exact molecular structure of these compounds has been a matter of discussion in the last few years; however, recently, the literature favors a particular set of structures. Therefore, to cover our study holistically, both of the proposed molecular formulas were employed in the simulations and discussion. A range of ambient conditions was selected, and the data from the molecular dynamics simulations were employed to give the best possible fit in the selected vapor pressure range. When looking at the results for the two structures of A230, A232, and A234, we can see that, despite their differences, the A and B coefficients have the same magnitude in both cases (structures proposed by Ellison and Hoenig and structures proposed by Mirzayanov). Moving from the Ellison and Hoenig to Mirzayanov structures for substances A230 and A234 revealed a decrease (slight to major) in factors A and B of the Antoine equation. However, in the case of A232, where the Mirzayanov structure produces higher coefficients, this does not hold true. Overall, the Antoine equation of the studied agents will be an essential tool for understanding the behavior of these substances under different conditions.
... In the samples taken as part of the investigation, the presence of a previously unknown nerve agent in the blood of the victims, which was not included in the Chemical Weapons Convention, was detected. As a result of the studies carried out by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), it was announced to the public that the nerve agent used in the incident was the Novichok group nerve agent, which is classified as a fourth generation nerve agent [8]. ...
... Possible synthesis routes for A-series nerve agents according to Mirzayanov's report. The leaving group X is Fluorine (F) or cyanide (CN)[8]. ...
Chemicals used in making chemical weapons are called chemical warfare agents. The first example of the use of chemical weapons in the modern sense appears during the First World War. Nerve agents are the first chemicals specially synthesized to produce new chemical weapons and not used in any other field. Until the 1990s, nerve agents were classified into two categories as “G” group and the “V”
group nerve agents. Chemical warfare agents such as tabun, sarin, and soman are in the “G” group, and chemical warfare agents such as VX, VR are in the “V” group. Novichok group nerve agents were first mentioned in an article by Lew Fiodorov and Vil Mirzayanov in the early 1990s. The word “Novichok” means “new, newcomer” in Russian. Novichok group nerve agents are also called “A” type nerve agents or “Fourth Generation Nerve Agents”. Unlike previous nerve agents, Novichok nerve
agents have amidine-guanidine and formaldehyde oxime moieties in their chemical structures. The first incident of the offensive use of Novichok group nerve agents occurred in Salisbury, England, on March 4, 2018. After this event, Novichok agents were added to the list of prohibited chemicals in the Chemical Weapons Convention. The amendment made to the list of prohibited chemicals of the Chemical Weapons
Convention (CWC) entered into force on 7 June 2020. This change made in CWC went down in history as the first change made in the Convention since 1993 when it was signed. In this study, the chemical structures and toxic properties of Novichok group nerve agents and other existing nerve agents were compared, the effectiveness of current treatment methods was discussed based on the mechanism of action of Novichok group nerve agents, and the techniques that should be used in detection/diagnosis and laboratory analysis and the methods that should be applied in the decontamination process were focused.
... IAA production from biological technology may be a clean technology that can be selected to replace chemical IAA synthesis. The advantages of chemical technology are that it is expensive, unstable, and carried out under harsh conditions that generate highly toxic substances 14 . ...
Agricultural waste can be used as an alternative source for plant growth regulator (PRR) biosynthesis by microorganisms. Actinomycetes are an important group of soil microbes that play a significant role in the soil as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) as well as biofertilizers. This study focused on the development of a low-cost medium based on bagasse to improve indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) production by S. lavenduligriseus BS50-1 using response surface methodology (RSM). Among thirty-four actinomycete strains, S. lavenduligriseus BS50-1 exhibited the highest IAA level under the selected medium. RSM based on central composite design (CCD) was used to optimize the appropriate nutrients for IAA production. Thus, glucose hydrolysate and L-tryptophan concentrations of 3.55 g/L and 5.0 g/L were optimal factors improving IAA production from 37.50 µg/mL to 159.47 µg/mL within 168 h. This study is the first to report the potential application of leftover bagasse as raw material for the cultivation of actinomycetes as an efficient IAA producer to promote plant growth.
... In the Iran-Iraq War, Tabun was employed by Iraq on a large scale for the first time and thousands of people were injured by the nerve agent during that time [2]. Although the signature of the "Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and their Destruction" (Chemical Weapons Convention, CWC) [3,4] in 1997 by 193 countries has prohibited the use of Tabun and other OPNAs, its illegal use in terrorist attacks and regional conflicts is still a potential threat in the world due to the ease and low cost of preparation. Successful detection of OPNAs can play a pivotal role in case of a terrorist attack with nerve agents. ...
Flavonoids are a kind of secondary metabolite which widely exist in plants. They contain a lot of active hydroxyls, which can react with toxic chemicals to produce potential exposure biomarkers. In this article, the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) was exposed to the nerve agent O-Ethyl N,N-dimethyl phosphoramidocyanidate (Tabun). By comparing with the plant not exposed to Tabun, some characteristic ions were identified by quadrupole–time of flight mass spectrometry in the acetonitrile extract of the exposed leaves. These characteristic ions were selected as parent ions to produce product ion mass spectra (PIMS). Some interesting fragmentation pathways were revealed, including neutral loss of glucoside, rhamnose and ethylene. O-Ethyl N,N-dimethyl phosphoryl modified flavonoids were deduced from assignment of the PIMS. The element components and the accurate mass of the product ions from each parent ion matched well with those of the proposed fragmentation pathways. Through comparison with the PIMS of structurally closely related chemical of Isobutyl methylphosphonyl modified flavonoids, the structures and the fragmentation pathways of the O-Ethyl N,N-dimethyl phosphoryl modified flavonoids were finally confirmed. Successfully finding and identifying these three specific exposure biomarkers in plants provided a new strategy for the retrospective analysis of organophosphorus exposure and forensic analysis.
... Novichok agents are a class of nerve agents, and they are the novel generation of chemical warfare compounds [4], developed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War. The use of a Novichok agent in Salisbury in March 2018 (Skripal case) is considered the most recent use of CWAs. ...
... Nepovimova and Kuca [11] have reviewed available Eastern and Western data about the A-agents and their precursors NOVICHOKs, including their history, synthesis, physical-chemical properties, pharmacological characteristics and clinical manifestation. Furthermore they conclude that only very little information is available about physicalchemical properties of NOVICHOKs [4,7,[12][13][14]. ...
Treatment and antidote research for chemical warfare agents (CWAs) is an issue that has concerned the whole western civilization for many years. Specifically, relating to the fourth generation of CWAs, including the Soviet-manufactured Novichok agents, possible deployment has or may be an issue in the near future due to the global terrorism threat. Flexible models for Novichok agents (A230, A232 & A234) have been created for the first time, using a new step-by-step approach, for molecular dynamics simulations. The new models were tested against experiments for available thermodynamic properties. An array of thermodynamic and structural properties is presented but not compared with other simulations and experimental studies due to the lack of them in the literature. Presenting calculated properties for these controlled substances might be vital in the effort for new ways to treat the threat from them.
... The authors consider it necessary to emphasise that the present text is not a guide to any illegal use of drugs as chemical weapons; indeed, it has been written with a sincere effort to draw attention to some of the pitfalls of scientific and technological development and to enhance awareness of the crucial importance of the ethics of scientific work as such. Its conception follows the previous work by the authors, which discussed the current state and perspectives of chemical weapons [2] and the military significance of toxins [3]. ...
The emergence of modern chemical weapons and chemical warfare is traditionally associated with World War I, but the use of poisons in the military has its roots deep in the past. The sources of these poisons have always been natural agents that also served as medicines. This relationship between poison and medicine, and nowadays between chemical warfare and medicine, or between ‘military chemistry’ and pharmacy, appears to be very important for understanding not only the history but also the possible future of both phenomena. This article looks at some historical examples of the use of drugs as chemical weapons and, conversely, the use of chemical weapons as medicines. It seeks to find answers to some questions that are particularly relevant to the implementation of the Chemical Weapons Convention, which aims to achieve a world without chemical warfare.
... Organophosphorus nerve agents (OPNAs) are a type of chemical warfare agent (CWA) with high toxicity that can inhibit the activity of acetylcholinesterase. 1,2 Although 193 countries have signed the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC), their illegal use in terrorist attacks and regional conicts is still a threat all over the world. 3,4 Different kinds of matrices including environmental samples, biomedical samples and newly emerging plant samples can be used to verify the OPNAs misuse. ...
As vegetation is part of our lives, plants are good candidates as indicators of toxic chemicals. Numerous components in plants may react with toxic chemicals to produce exposure biomarkers. Plant biomarkers formed by the modification of endogenous plant components by chemical warfare agents have not been reported. In this article, the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) was exposed to the nerve agent isobutyl S-2-diethylaminoethyl methylphosphonothiolate (iBuVX). Some characteristic ions were identified by liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry and their product ion mass spectra were recorded and interpreted. Some interesting fragmentation pathways were revealed including neutral loss of glucoside, rhamnose and isobutylene. Isobutyl methylphosphonyl modified flavonoids were deduced from assignment of product ions. The element components and the accurate mass of the product ions matched well with those of the proposed fragmentation pathways. The binding site of the nerve agent on flavonoids was proved to be the hydroxyl group on the benzene ring of the flavonoids by density functional theory computation and by the synthesis of the reference chemical, which was confirmed by 1H-31P HMBC NMR. The phosphonyl-modified flavonoids were evaluated for specificity in different plants. Four new flavonoid adducts as potential biomarkers were identified in the leaves of the iBuVX-exposed plant, which provided a novel strategy for the retrospective analysis of organophosphorus exposure for chemical weapon verification and forensic analysis.
