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While scholars have proposed different models of language assessment literacy (LAL), these models have mostly comprised prescribed sets of components based on principles of good practice. As such, these models remain theoretical in nature, and represent the perspectives of language assessment researchers rather than stakeholders themselves. The pro...
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... in order to develop a language assessment literacy survey to be used by a range of stakeholders to assess their own groups' needs, we had two clear guiding aims: (1) the survey would need to be comprehensive, yet feasible to complete among populations where motivation to engage with LAL may be low; and (2) the survey items would need to be intelligible across the wide-range of stakeholder groups suggested by Taylor (2013). This necessitated a multi-stage development process which spanned almost 24 months (see Figure 2). The starting point for instrument development was Taylor's (2013) hypothesised dimensions of LAL, and specifically the eight components described above. ...
Citations
... A core principle of OA is equal access to knowledge, as publicly stated at the outset of the OA movement (e.g., Budapest Open Access Initiative, 2002). Additionally, OA can also contribute to the enhancement of language assessment literacy, which allows diverse stakeholders to engage with research findings and supports tailored training and awareness raising (Harding & Kremmel, 2016;Kremmel & Harding, 2020). ...
This study is a systematic examination of the open access status of research in two flagship language testing and assessment journals: Language Testing and Language Assessment Quarterly. Coding and analysing 898 articles, we investigated a) the prevalence of open access in four aspects – open manuscripts, open materials, open data, and open code, and b) the relationship between open access and various characteristics of research, tests, and researchers. Our study revealed a positive trend in the adoption of open access over time, with open manuscripts and materials showing notable increases. Open code and data have remained scarce, though with a recent uptick from a low base. Notably, logistic regression results suggest inequitable participation in open access as authors from the Global South were less likely to have open manuscripts. Recognising the potential role of flagship journals as trend and standard setters, we call on the field to a) shift toward more equitable open access models, b) balance intellectual property concerns with validation needs, c) recognise open code and open data with protected access via dedicated badges, and d) adopt Research Transparency Statements, a new reporting structure inclusive of methodological and epistemological differences in open research practices.
... The majority of EFL teachers appear to have an insufficient understanding of language assessment principles and methods, according to a substantial body of research (Berry et al., 2019;Deygers & Malone, 2019;Koh et al., 2018;Kremmel & Harding, 2020). According to Mertler (2009), this is because assessment classes are not essential or required for pre-service teachers, and teacher education programs are partially responsible for teachers' incapacity to understand practical classroom assessment procedures. ...
This study aimed to explore English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers' perceptions regarding alternative e-assessments in the Turkish tertiary level context. The study utilized semi-structured interviews with a sample of EFL instructors from 17 higher education institutions in Türkiye. The data were analyzed using thematic analysis to identify emerging themes. The results revealed varying perceptions about alternative e-assessments, with six primary themes emerging: impact on learning, workload, academic integrity, digital technology, grading and feedback, and assessment competence. Overall, this qualitative study provides valuable insights into the perceptions of EFL teachers regarding alternative e-assessments, highlighting key areas of concern. The study emphasizes the need to address these concerns in professional development programs that provide teachers with the necessary knowledge and skills to effectively implement alternative e-assessments. The results also have implications for the development of effective assessment policies and procedures, optimizing educational practices in the digital age.
... The development of theoretical models and frameworks to understand LAL has been a focal point of various studies. Kremmel & Harding (2020) highlight the need for a comprehensive, empirical model of LAL across different stakeholder groups, emphasizing the importance of developing the Language Assessment Literacy Survey. This underscores the significance of understanding LAL from an empirical perspective and its impact on various stakeholders involved in language assessment. ...
Fluency in Language Assessment Literacy (LAL) is increasingly recognized as a crucial competency for language teachers and learners alike. This literature review explores the concept of Language Assessment Literacy, its theoretical underpinnings, and its implications for language teaching and learning. The review delves into the role of assessment literacy in language education, highlighting its impact on teaching practices, learning outcomes, and student motivation. Additionally, it examines strategies for developing and enhancing assessment literacy among language educators, including training programs and professional development initiatives. Furthermore, the review identifies current trends and future directions in language assessment literacy research, emphasizing the need for continued efforts to promote assessment literacy in language education practice and policy. Overall, this review underscores the importance of fluency in LAL and calls for concerted action to foster its development among language educators and learners.
... Nevertheless, studies specifically targeting pre-service teachers' grading literacy are scarce. Grades are embedded in a variety of summative assessment knowledge and skills that pre-service teachers develop and value (Edwards, 2017;Hilden et al., 2022) and are moderately positive regarding their confidence to apply them (DeLuca & Klinger, 2010;Kremmel & Harding, 2020). As underscored by previous researchers (e.g. ...
The objective of this study is to expand teachers’ knowledge base of assessment in teaching by exploring pre-service language teachers’ construct of grading literacy during their pedagogical studies and immediately after. We conceptualize pre-service language teachers’ grading literacy with a literature-based flow model of decision-making comprising six major phases. These involve (1) mobilizing grading related knowledge, skills and dispositions, (2) distinguishing relevant assessment events, (3) identifying and filing evidence, (4) interpreting assessment rubrics, (5) making the grading decision, and (6) communicating it to stakeholders. The decision trajectory is constrained by individual and social factors. The research questions address pre-service teachers’ perceptions of the multiple components, primarily the evidence base of a grade. The data comprise survey responses (n = 131) and interview data (n = 26) from three universities, one in Finland and two in Sweden. Regarding the factorial structure, variables incorporating process and disposition aspects provided the strongest explanatory the most frequently attended grading evidence comprises written and oral tests. Pre-service teachers in Finland and Sweden differ with regard to most aspects of what evidence they base their grading on. The interview responses confirm pre-service teachers’ high awareness of the complex nature of grading and the responsibility attached to the endeavour. Based on the findings we propose recommendations for teacher education programs to broaden and enrich pre-service teachers’ grading practice to encompass processual and progress aspects. Increased attention should be paid to practical implementation of grading standards and guidelines in interpreting and justifying grading decisions.
... Several studies have investigated students' AL levels (Kremmel and Harding, 2020;Butler et al., 2021;Yan and Fan, 2021). For instance, Butler et al. (2021) examined Chinese primary school students' perceptions and attitudes towards assessment. ...
... Yan and Fan (2021) investigated the LAL levels of PhD candidates specializing in language testing and found that they had significantly higher levels of LAL than their peers majoring in language pedagogy. Additionally, Kremmel and Harding (2020) developed and validated an LAL survey to examine the LAL needs of various stakeholder groups, including students. This LAL survey was developed based on Taylor's (2013) LAL models with nine dimensions, including but not limited to knowledge of theory, language pedagogy, impact and social values, scores and decision-making. ...
... However, among the Frontiers in Psychology 03 frontiersin.org aforementioned studies, only four have paid attention to students' AL in language assessment context, that is, students' LAL (Torshizi and Bahraman, 2019;Kremmel and Harding, 2020;Butler et al., 2021;Yan and Fan, 2021). Existing research on students' LAL has primarily focused on their perceptions of language assessment and ways to improve their LAL. ...
Introduction
This research aims to investigate the impact of students’ language assessment literacy (LAL) on their cognition. The study specifically examines how different levels of LAL influence two critical factors: test anxiety and motivation to learn a second language.
Methods
To achieve the research objectives, a questionnaire was administered to a sample of 415 university students in China. The questionnaire utilized a five-point Likert scale to assess students’ levels of LAL, test anxiety, and motivation to learn a second language. Descriptive data were examined to reveal students’ proficiency in LAL, along with their levels of test anxiety and motivation. Multilevel regression analyses were performed using Mplus to investigate whether students’ LAL proficiency can predict their levels of test anxiety and motivation.
Results
The findings indicated that the participating students had a proficiency level of approximately 60% in the content of the LAL questionnaire. The analysis further revealed the relationships between specific dimensions of LAL and both test anxiety and second language motivation. The multilevel regression analysis suggested that theoretical knowledge about language and language learning, the understanding of the impact and social value of language assessments, and the uses of assessments to enhance learning, positively predicted students’ extrinsic motivation. Furthermore, students’ understanding of the uses of assessments to learn and their theoretical knowledge about language learning were identified as positive predictors of intrinsic motivation. Additionally, it was observed that students’ LAL did not significantly predict test anxiety.
Discussion
These findings emphasize the significance of enhancing students’ LAL due to the identified relationships between LAL dimensions and motivation to learn a second language. The study suggests pedagogical implications for improving LAL, with a focus on specific dimensions that positively impact students’ motivation. The absence of a significant relationship between LAL dimensions and test anxiety prompts further exploration and consideration of additional factors influencing students’ anxiety in language assessments.
... Language assessment literacy (LAL) has been at the forefront of ELT. LAL enables teachers to examine students' learning processes and outcomes and use assessments to make effective educational decisions (Kremmel & Harding, 2020). While this development is seen in appraisals globally (Taylor, 2009), it has also been welcomed into contextualized local settings (Kremmel & Harding, 2020;Taylor, 2013), such as those in Asia: China (Lam, 2019;Sun & Zhang, 2022;Yan & Fan, 2021), Hong Kong (Lam, 2015(Lam, , 2019 and Bangladesh (Sultana, 2019). ...
... LAL enables teachers to examine students' learning processes and outcomes and use assessments to make effective educational decisions (Kremmel & Harding, 2020). While this development is seen in appraisals globally (Taylor, 2009), it has also been welcomed into contextualized local settings (Kremmel & Harding, 2020;Taylor, 2013), such as those in Asia: China (Lam, 2019;Sun & Zhang, 2022;Yan & Fan, 2021), Hong Kong (Lam, 2015(Lam, , 2019 and Bangladesh (Sultana, 2019). However, to the authors' best knowledge, no studies have examined language teachers' assessment literacy and needs in Taiwan in recent years. ...
... The timing of the implementation of the new curriculum and assessment practices provides a good entry point (Kremmel & Harding, 2020) for the present research to investigate the overall LAL of English teachers at senior high school level in Taiwan. To provide a relatively thorough understanding of this, three groups of practitioners are first considered: pre-service English teachers, inservice English teachers and those working in cram schools, all of whom prepare Taiwanese students for university entrance exams. ...
... As highlighted by Fulcher (2021), to guarantee credible and dependable assessments, teachers should have an advanced level of assessment literacy. For this, a considerable part of professional development programs now concentrates on improving teacher assessment literacy (TAL) (DeLuca et al., 2016;Kremmel et al., 2020;Mansouri et al., 2021). ...
Reviewing the literature reveals that the role of teacher assessment literacy (TAL) in teacher job stress (TJS) and teacher job burnout (TJB) among English as foreign language (EFL) teachers in Iran has remained largely unexplored. As a result, this mixed-methods study investigated the association between TAL, TJS, and TJB in the Iranian EFL context. For the quantitative section, 413 EFL teachers, including 221 males and 192 females, were randomly selected. They completed the Teacher Assessment Literacy Questionnaire, the Teacher Job Stress Scale, and the Teacher Job Burnout Inventory, and the data was analyzed using structural equation modeling. For the qualitative part, 18 EFL teachers who joined the quantitative part participated in a focus group interview, and their responses were analyzed through a content analysis approach. Results indicated that TAL is a strong predictor of TJS and TJB. Specifically, the findings indicated that TAL was positively linked to all the sub-scales of TJS and TJB. Additionally, the complementary qualitative results yielded four themes: TAL promotes job productivity, TAL raises teachers’ social face, TAL enables teachers to manage the class efficiently, and TAL brings positive wash-back. The findings suggest that TAL, TJS, and TJB should be incorporated in pre-service and in-service teacher training courses in EFL education.
... Extensive research underscores that teachers dedicate a substantial portion of their time to evaluation activities (Bachman, 2014). Consequently, classroom assessments directly influence education and student learning (Alibakhshi & Mezajin, 2013;Earl, 2013;Green, 2014;Kremmel & Harding, 2020;Sultana, 2019;Tsagari, 2017). To align with the goals of twenty-first century education and equip students for lifelong learning, teachers must seamlessly integrate assessments into their teaching methodologies and students' learning processes (Popham, 2014). ...
Consequential validity, a facet of construct validity, has been extensively explored by educational psychologists and scholars focused on English language assessment. It is widely recognized that English language instructors must possess a thorough understanding of high-stake language tests. However, the body of research concerning EFL teachers’ perceptions of high-stake tests is quite limited. This study aims to delve into the cognitions of Iranian EFL teachers regarding the social and psychological ramifications of high-stake English language tests. Additionally, the study investigates the influence of a teacher training workshop on EFL teachers’ perceptions of test consequences. The research employs a two-phase quantitative research design. A total of 210 EFL teachers participated in the survey, completing a scale comprising 25 items that delineated their perceptions of test consequences. Furthermore, thirty teachers engaged in a two-session workshop focused on test consequences. Data analysis encompassed both one-sample and paired-sample t tests.
The results reveal that EFL teachers possess knowledge regarding certain social and psychological consequences of language tests; however, their awareness of some adverse consequences remains limited. Notably, the outcomes indicate that teacher training workshops have a positive impact on teachers’ cognitions of both positive and negative test consequences. The implications of these findings extend to teacher trainers and English language educators, offering practical insights to enhance the effectiveness of their teaching practices.
... Spelling doesn't take this into account. For example, "көз сал" (köz sal) = [көссал] (kössal], "тұзсыз" (tūzsyz) = [тұссыз] (tūssyz), "жазса" (jazsa) = [жасса] (jassa) If the last sound of the first word is [з] (z), and the next word begins with a phoneme [ж] (j), then [з] (z) is pronounced as a consonant [ж] (j).However, the root of the word is preserved, for example, "Оразжан" (Orazjan) = [Оражжан] (orajjan), "Боз жігіт" (Boz jɪgɪt) = [божжігіт] (bojjɪɡɪt).It is also worth mentioning the double or reciprocal assimilation influence of the English language on the Kazakh languages(Kremmel and Harding, 2019). Reciprocal assimilation is the interaction of two sounds in the same word. ...
The relevance of the study lies in the fact that today one of the problems of linguistics is the comparative study of languages. Comparative study of unrelated languages makes it possible to identify features of linguistic phenomena that are barely noticeable when studying one or another language separately. These features, along with the formation of the image of a typological structure, cover both the entire language and the study of its individual parts. The purpose of the study is to analyze the effectiveness of a comparative study of the phonetic features of the language structures of the Kazakh and English languages. To achieve the research goals, the following methods were used: functional, communicative, and comparative. The starting point of training is the explanation of the role of pronunciation in the overall process of formation and perception of speech. The article emphasizes the importance of the comparative study of languages of different structures in the field of phonetics. It is described that the sounds of the language are not pronounced separately, but are used in combination with each other within a word or between words and mutually sequentially. The results of the work determined that both in Kazakh and English, sounds in the composition of words or between them influence each other and are pronounced consonantly, and questions of sound extraction play an important role in teaching speaking skills, as well as in other types of language communication. It seems necessary to enrich the repertoire of techniques used in phonetic didactics by popularizing comparative methods. Given that knowledge of the elements of phonetics is an integral part of language learning, the practical significance lies in the fact that the study can be essential in the process of preparing a productive comparative study of the English and Kazakh languages in the context of phonetics.
... Many scholars have proved that formative assessment can considerably improve students' learning performance (Brunfaut & Harding, 2018;Kremmel & Harding, 2020). In their study, Alahmadi et al. (2019) found that formative assessment positively impacts the English-speaking performance of some Saudi EFL learners. ...
... In addition, the final assessment alone may not give the students equal opportunities to acquire essential skills such as critical thinking, creative thinking, and problem-solving skills. On the other hand, it is proven that formative assessment greatly helps improve learning performance (Brunfaut & Harding, 2018;Kremmel & Harding, 2020). For example, Alahmadi et al. (2019) pointed out that formative assessment positively impacts the English-speaking performance of some Saudi EFL learners. ...
