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Overall manufacturing flow: (a) CF-GO reinforced polymer resin preparing and work principle of SLA 3D printer; (b) demos of 3D printed CF-GO reinforced polymer parts before and after annealing (at 120 °C for 24 h, Ar gas); (c) SLA-printed CF-GO reinforced polymer lattices with and without annealing.
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Insufficient mechanical properties of stereolithography (SLA)-printed architected polymer metamaterial limits its wide applications such as in the areas of biomedicine and aerospace. One effective solution is to reinforce the structures with micro- or nano- fibers/particles, but their interfaces are critical for the reinforcement. In this work, a c...
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Over the past ten years, the use of additive manufacturing techniques, also known as “3D printing,” has steadily increased in a variety of scientific fields. There are a number of inherent advantages to these fabrication methods over conventional manufacturing due to the way that they work, which is based on the layer-by-layer material-deposition p...
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... To enhance the mechanical properties and other physicochemical characteristics, and, thus, increase the added value of SLA-printed parts, additives, typically nanomaterials, are employed [15,21,22]. Among these reinforcements, graphene [5,[22][23][24] and graphene oxide (GO) [14,21,25,26] stand out, although the latter is preferred in nanocomposite applications due to its better dispersibility into polymer matrices [24,27,28]. ...
Additive manufacturing, particularly Stereolithography (SLA), has gained widespread attention thanks to its ability to produce intricate parts with high precision and customization capacity. Nevertheless, the inherent low mechanical properties of SLA-printed parts limit their use in high-value applications. One approach to enhance these properties involves the incorporation of nanomaterials, with graphene oxide (GO) being a widely studied option. However, the characterization of SLA-printed GO nanocomposites under various stress loadings remains underexplored in the literature, despite being essential for evaluating their mechanical performance in applications. This study aimed to address this gap by synthesizing GO and incorporating it into a commercial SLA resin at different concentrations (0.2, 0.5, and 1 wt.%). Printed specimens were subjected to pure tension, combined stresses, and pure shear stress modes for comprehensive mechanical characterization. Additionally, failure criteria were provided using the Drucker-–Prager model.
... 3DPP-FS, including PLA and ABS are revolutionizing the water treatment industry when combined with specialist formulations. Different 3D printing processes, such as FDM (Esposito Corcione et al., 2018;Galantucci et al., 2010;McCullough and Yadavalli, 2013), SLA (Xiao et al., 2021;Xue et al., 2023;Yanar et al., 2020), and SLS (Yan et al., 2017;Wu et al., 2023;Yuan et al., 2017), are employed depending on the needs of the filtering system. The accuracy that 3DPP-FSs offer is a noteworthy benefit. ...
This chapter examines the burgeoning field of 3D printed polymers and composites and their potential role in water quality preservation. Various 3D printing techniques, emphasizing methods like binder jetting technology and vat photopolymerization, all complemented by visual illustrations, are explored. Diverse materials used in 3D printing, from conventional plastics, like thermoplastics and thermosets, to innovative categories, such as biomaterials, smart materials, and edible printing materials have been touched upon. The article addresses challenges in 3D printing within this context, detailing the primary binding mechanisms and highlighting prevalent defects in printed materials, including the balling phenomenon, porosity, and cracks. The focal point concerns the essential characteristics that 3D printed polymers and composites must possess to be efficacious in water treatment. This emphasizes chemical resistance, biocompatibility, controlled porosity, mechanical and thermal stability, UV resistance, etc. A particular focus is placed on achieving a harmonious equilibrium between the hydrophilic and hydrophobic characteristics, the fundamental aspect of adaptability, and the overriding objectives of sustainability and cost-effectiveness. The characteristics of these polymers and composites and their innovative uses in water quality protection have been analyzed. New 3D printed polymer-based filtration systems and their importance in the separation of microplastics have been introduced. Various applications, such as their use as adsorbents, catalysts, biocarriers, and microfluidic chips, have also been discussed. Finally, a comprehensive discussion on the benefits and limitations of these polymers and composites in water treatment has been made, followed by a summary of the present situation and potential future opportunities.
... Considering resin chemistry mechanism, quality, curing condition, cost, and technology readiness level (TRL), we believe the composite additive manufacturing trend should be to develop novel AM processes to make mature thermally curable resins (e.g., commercial epoxy and space-grade resin) available for thermoset AM composites [22][23][24]. However, continuously reinforced thermally curable polymer composite additive manufacturing is actually facing significant challenges. ...
... In electronics, it is employed to fabricate highly conductive and lightweight graphene-based components, such as flexible circuits, sensors and antennas, due to its excellent electrical properties and precise patterning capabilities [25][26][27]. In aerospace, VP-produced graphene composites contribute to lightweight yet robust materials for aircraft components, offering enhanced strength and reduced weight [28]. In biomedicine, VP is used to create customised implants and prosthetics with improved biocompatibility and mechanical strength [29,30]. ...
... Vat photopolymerised graphene-based composites find versatile applications across multiple industries. Their unique properties, including exceptional mechanical strength, electrical conductivity and thermal stability, make them valuable in additive manufacturing, where they are used to produce lightweight and robust components for aerospace, biomedical, electrical and thermal applications [10,28,67]. In the field of electronics, these composites are employed in printed circuit boards and sensors, capitalising on their excellent conductivity [42]. ...
... Graphene's excellent thermal conductivity can help dissipate heat generated during the 3D printing process, reducing the risk of warping or defects in the printed parts [67]. Overall, the incorporation of graphene or graphene-based materials in these 3D printing techniques results in composites with improved mechanical performance, making them suitable for a wide range of applications, including aerospace, automotive and biomedical devices [10,28]. As given in Table 1, many research on the topic considered the improvement of mechanical strength of 3D printed components due to the addition of Graphene. ...
Additive manufacturing has revolutionised the production of intricate and complex structures, offering numerous applications across diverse industries. Among the additive manufacturing techniques, VAT photopolymerisation (VP) is a promising method for fabricating intricate structures with smooth surface finishes. However, the inherent limitations of 3D printed structures, such as compromised mechanical strength and conductivity, necessitate the incorporation of filler materials. Graphene, a remarkable two-dimensional carbon material renowned for its exceptional mechanical and electrical properties, emerges as a highly desirable filler of various applications. The review addresses the critical parameters that affect the quality and properties of graphene composites fabricated using VP, including the choice of photopolymer resin, exposure parameters, and pre and post-processing techniques. It also explores the functionalisation of graphene materials, multi-material printing and hybrid composite systems. The resulting graphene composites find applications in various fields, including electronics, aerospace, biomedicine and energy storage. This review presents a comprehensive survey of these applications, highlighting the unique advantages of VP-derived graphene composites. The challenges and future prospects in the field of VP for graphene composites are discussed. These encompass improving printability, achieving enhanced graphene dispersion, and exploring novel hybrid materials and innovative applications.
... This is where AM techniques could help to expand the usage of lattices. Until now, stereolithography (SLA) [23], selective laser melting (SLM) [24], selective laser sintering (SLS) [25], electron beam melting (EBM) [26], and fused deposition modeling (FDM) [27] have been applied to construct lattices. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is a low-cost technique in 3D printing. ...
Nowadays, reducing the weight of materials while providing sufficient strength is vital in the transportation industry and energy absorption applications. A cellular lattice structure with excellent mechanical properties and low weight can be a suitable structure. Additive manufacturing (AM) or 3D-printing has created a revolution in manufacturing processes. This allows for the manufacture of complex parts in small quantities. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is a common and low-cost AM technique. In this research, a Kagome structure was constructed by FDM. The height, angle, and diameter of struts, and two typical materials acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polylactic acid (PLA) were varied by Box–Behnken response surface methodology (RSM). The specimens were subjected to compressive and shear tests. From the highest p value, it was found that the diameter of the strut is the most significant parameter of mechanical responses. The energy absorption was higher in ABS because of the higher strain-at-fracture in the tensile test of the ABS specimen. Optimization was conducted based on two types of objective functions. The optimized lattices were tested and the results were compared with the predictions obtained by regression equations. The equations extracted by RSM implied that the models can predict the experimental results in good agreement.
... Low layer length improves accuracy; nevertheless, this approach requires more time and money to develop the bioprinter. In comparison to FDM biotechnology, they are extensively employed in the 3D manufacture of SLA and SLS microfluidic devices because of their benefits such as high sensitivity, rapid production time, and low cost [231][232][233][234]. Owing to the indicated advantages, one study produced a graphene oxide (GO)-mediated photothermal responsive dextran hydrogel scaffold using microfluidic 3D printing technique. ...
The vulnerability of skin wounds has made efficient wound dressing a challenging issue for decades, seeking to mimic the natural microenvironment of cells to facilitate cell binding, augmen- tation, and metamorphosis. Many three-dimensional (3D) bioprinted hydrogel-based configurations have been developed using high-tech devices to overcome the limitations of traditional dressing ma- terials. Based on a material perspective, this review examines current state-of-the-art 3D bioprinting for hydrogel-based dressings, including both their advantages and limitations. Accordingly, their po- tential applications in terms of their performance in vitro and in vivo, as well as their adaptability to clinical settings, were investigated. Moreover, different configurations of 3D bioprinters are discussed. Finally, a roadmap for advancing wound dressings fabricated with 3D bioprinting is presented.
... Photopolymer (nano-)additivation enables modifying the mechanical properties of the base materials, for instance, by incorporating alumina platelets [11], silicon carbide fibers [12], carbon fiber and graphene oxide [13], lignin-coated cellulose nanocrystals [14], and iron-oxide (Fe 3 O 4 ) graphene [15]. The thermal properties can be influenced by additivation with titaniumdioxide [16] or graphene-oxide additivation [17], while photopolymer photoactivity has been increased by alumina-doped zinc-oxide [18]. ...
Masked stereolithography printing can be used to produce functionalised magneto-responsive polymer structures. Magnetic filler additivation of the photopolymer enables the production of powerful and fast soft robotics. However, current approaches require high filler concentrations, reducing the mechanical properties and compromising the processability. In this study, FeNi nanoparticles were added to a photopolymer to take advantage of their soft magnetic response and high magnetisation. Field-assisted printing gives rise to magnetic anisotropy by arranging laser-synthesised FeNi nanoparticles into uniaxial magnetic strands of up to 500 μm length. Favoured by the small size and even distribution of the nanoparticles, only 0.02 wt% are needed to detect magnetic responsivity. Thus, the impact on the mechanical property is reduced while facilitating the control over the composite magnetic properties. The practical feasibility of the composites is demonstrated by actuating gripper and impeller structures which offer possibilities in applications like drug delivery and tissue engineering.
... Based on the controllable and agile movement of the UV laser, spatially complicated 3D structures can be constructed by SLA (Figure 5c), diverging from the confines of in-plane configurations associated with extrusion-based printing. Both graphene/polymer composites-based structural components [95] and flexible functional prototypes [88,96] can be fabricated by the SLA technique, depending on the choice of the photopolymer. For example, complex-shaped GO nanocomposites of nested dodecahedron and diagrid ring with good mechanical properties were printed by SLA the technique [10]. ...
Three-dimensional (3D) printing, alternatively known as additive manufacturing, is a transformative technology enabling precise, customized, and efficient manufacturing of components with complex structures. It revolutionizes traditional processes, allowing rapid prototyping, cost-effective production, and intricate designs. The 3D printed graphene-based materials combine graphene’s exceptional properties with additive manufacturing’s versatility, offering precise control over intricate structures with enhanced functionalities. To gain comprehensive insights into the development of 3D printed graphene and graphene/polymer composites, this review delves into their intricate fabrication methods, unique structural attributes, and multifaceted applications across various domains. Recent advances in printable materials, apparatus characteristics, and printed structures of typical 3D printing techniques for graphene and graphene/polymer composites are addressed, including extrusion methods (direct ink writing and fused deposition modeling), photopolymerization strategies (stereolithography and digital light processing) and powder-based techniques. Multifunctional applications in energy storage, physical sensor, stretchable conductor, electromagnetic interference shielding and wave absorption, as well as bio-applications are highlighted. Despite significant advancements in 3D printed graphene and its polymer composites, innovative studies are still necessary to fully unlock their inherent capabilities.
... For the same reasons, in recent years, bio-engineering and engineering researchers have been exploiting this method too, studying and characterising the SLA products from the physical, mechanical, and environmental points of view (Bernasconi et al., 2017;Rodriguez et al., 2021). SLA applications are also known in the metamaterial field (Casarini et al., 2018;Xiao et al., 2021;Yin et al., 2012), although this is not the most preferred prototyping method, as it is more expensive than FDM, it needs more post-processing work and space, and the materials involved in this technology can result in toxicity if not appropriately managed. For this specific AMM design, for example, after the solidification of the resin, SLA samples must undergo a post-processing cleaning of the inner duct to ensure that none of the liquid resin is left inside the coil, increasing the production time of each sample. ...
Acoustic metamaterials (AMMs) offer innovative solutions for physics and engineering problems, allowing lighter, multiphysics, and sustainable systems. They are usually studied analytically or numerically and then tested on prototypes. For this reason, additive manufacturing (AM) techniques are a popular way of quickly realising AMMs' innovative geometrical designs. However, AM parameters are often standardised without considering the specific issues of each AMM geometrical shape, leading to a possible mismatch between the analytical (or numerical) and experimental results. In this study, a simple AMM-a coiled-up resonator-has been produced with different AM technologies [fused deposition modeling (FDM), stereolithography (SLA), and selective laser melting and materials (polylactic acid, polyethylene terephthalate glycol, resin, flexible resin, and stainless steel). The sound absorption performance of these samples has been measured in two research labs in Italy and compared with the analytical and numerical calculations. This permitted the identification of the best combinations of AM technologies, their setup, and materials matching the expected results. The SLA/resin combination performed better overall; however, cheaper and more easily manageable samples made with FDM and polyethylene terephthalate glycol can achieve the same acoustic performance through the optimal AM printing setup. It is expected that this methodology could also be replicated for other AMMs.
... Functional prototyping is an ideal manufacturing technology for patterned structures, molding, and tooling applications. In addition, it is used in applications, such as artificial tissues, microfluidics, biomedical devices, and high electrical capacitors [34][35][36]. ...
As a result of the developments in additive manufacturing (AM) technology, 3D printing is transforming from a method used only in rapid prototyping to a technique used to produce large-scale equipment. This study presents the fabrication and experimental studies of a 3D-printed strain sensor that can be used directly in soft applications. Photopolymer-based conductive and flexible ultraviolet (UV) resin materials are used in the fabrication of the sensor. A Stereolithography (SLA)-based printer is preferred for 3D fabrication. The bottom base of the sensor, which consists of two parts, is produced from flexible UV resin, while the channels that should be conductive are produced from conductive UV resin. In total, a strain sensor with a thickness of 2 mm was produced. Experimental studies were carried out under loading and unloading conditions to observe the hysteresis effect of the sensor. The results showed a close linear relationship between the strain sensor and the measured resistance value. In addition, tensile test specimens were produced to observe the behavior of conductive and non-conductive materials. The tensile strength values obtained from the test results will provide information about the sensor placement. In addition, the flexible structure of the strain sensor will ensure its usability in many soft applications.
