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The Homerus swallowtail, Papilio (Pterourus) homerus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae), is an endangered species of butterfly endemic to Jamaica. As the largest species of the genus
Papilio in the world and the largest butterfly in the Western Hemisphere, this rare butterfly once inhabited most of Jamaica but
has now dwindled into two tiny populations: a...
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To understand the effects of local landscape factors on functional species composition and phenology of butterflies across multiple spatial scales, a study was carried out in a tropical dry forest of the northern highlands of the Eastern Ghats of India from November 2016 to October 2017. A total of 3343 individuals of butterflies were recorded, inc...
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... The highest rainfall is at Corn Puss Gap, which receives over 7000 mm annually (30 year average), and the mean monthly rainfall for Millbank is 350 mm (40 year average; data from the Meteorological Office of Jamaica). This heavy rainfall promotes dense vegetation growth and an extremely high relative humidity, which favors the growth of the host plant and is ideal for the larval development of P. homerus [5,13]. ...
... Due to the reliance of P. homerus on very specific environmental conditions of dense forest growth and high relative humidity [5,13], it was considered a prime candidate as a flagship species for habitat conservation in a broader context. By the late 1980s, P. homerus emerged as a flagship species for the conservation movement in Jamaica, and while it is yet to be declared officially as the national butterfly, it was treated as such; it has been used for several costumes in the National Independence Festival celebrations, and illustrations appear on souvenirs such as T-shirts and coffee mugs. ...
The literature on community-based environmental management is very extensive and the discussion of the pros and cons is continuing. Presented here is an example of a successful interaction between university-based entomologists and a local rural community, detailing the change in the attitude of the town of Millbank, Jamaica, from a Giant Swallowtail Butterfly collecting site to a model for community protection of a species and its environment. A review of some of the research work on community-based conservation efforts is included. These linkages take a considerable time to establish and the efforts spent by scientific personnel, governmental representatives and eco-tourists are itemized to emphasize how specific conservation activities have inspired confidence in the local community, thus engendering trust and mutual respect between the two groups. Reviews of the developed legislative support from both international and state entities also must be in place, and these are included in chronological detail as much as possible. Finally, a review of the long-term funding of educational and other local programs providing a level of stability to the conservation effort, until the local community can take over the protection of the species and/or habitat, is provided. Of utmost importance is a comprehensive educational campaign to not only sensitize the community, but the larger society, so that there can be buy-in from all stakeholders.
... The Homerus swallowtail (Papilio (Pterourus) homerus Fabricius 1793) (Figure 1) is the largest butterfly in the Western Hemisphere [1,2] and is critically endangered [3][4][5]. Endemic to the island of Jamaica [6,7], P. homerus is a flagship species that symbolizes the need for conservation efforts [8] and has been featured on postage stamps and the Jamaican $1000 bill ( Figure 2). Papilio homerus is listed in the IUCN Red Data Book, Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World [3], and is protected as an Appendix I species by the Convention for International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and the Jamaican Wildlife Act of 1988. ...
... Papilio homerus is listed in the IUCN Red Data Book, Threatened Swallowtail Butterflies of the World [3], and is protected as an Appendix I species by the Convention for International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and the Jamaican Wildlife Act of 1988. The range of this enigmatic butterfly, possibly less than 10 km 2 for each of the two remaining populations, continues to dwindle, particularly due to habitat destruction [4] and recent mining initiatives [7,9]. In addition, the extant populations of P. homerus reside in areas of Jamaica famous for their difficult terrain [5,7,10,11], which further confounds the ability to perform the long-term field studies necessary for understanding the biology and population dynamics for this species. ...
... Many of these early reports were anecdotal and it was not until descriptions by André Avinoff and his nephew, Nicholas Shoumatoff, that details were provided about the biology and preferred habitats of the adult life stage ( [19], discussed in [20]). Despite recent efforts to study the biology of P. homerus [4][5][6][7]10,11,[21][22][23][24], there are still gaps in our knowledge about the species, particularly about the biology of the adults, the total number of individuals remaining in the stronghold populations, and population dynamics. In addition, information about the genetic architecture of P. homerus populations is completely lacking because no genetic studies have been performed, which is necessary for the development of an effective conservation plan. ...
The Homerus swallowtail, Papilio (Pterourus) homerus Fabricius, is listed as an endangered species and is endemic to the Caribbean island of Jamaica. The largest butterfly in the Western Hemisphere, P. homerus once inhabited seven of Jamaica’s 14 parishes and consisted of at least three populations; however, now only two stronghold populations remain, a western population in the rugged Cockpit Country and an eastern population in the Blue and John Crow Mountains. Despite numerous studies of its life history, much about the population biology, including estimates of total numbers of individuals in each population, remains unknown. In addition, a breeding program is needed to establish an experimental population, which could be used to augment wild populations and ensure the continued survival of the species. Here, we present a review of the biology of P. homerus and recommendations for a conservation plan.
... Usually, a larger size retains the best benefits regarding offspring legacy (Stillwell & Davidowitz 2010, Allen et al 2011, but the causes of sexual size dimorphism are not well understood (Hu et al 2010). Size deviation toward larger females is a common pattern for most species of arthropods (Johnson & Triplehorn 2004) and for some Papilionidae species as well, like P. anchises (Freitas & Ramos 2001), Pterourus homerus (Fabricius) (Lehnert 2008), Parides burchellanus (Westwood) (Beirão et al 2012), and B. polystictus (present study). ...
Battus polystictus (Butler) is a butterfly from the Neotropical region, occurring in the Atlantic Forest and Pampa biomes. It is commonly found in forest fragments surrounded by meadow formations, subjected to marked seasonal changes. Here, we report the population dynamics of B. polystictus at a high latitude environment and provide notes on its natural history. Population parameters were estimated on a 12-month mark-recapture program and the seasonality of resources investigated by exhaustive mapping of host-plants and flowers. The number of butterflies per day was not stable during the year, ranging from zero (winter) to 22 (summer); the sex ratio was always male biased (3M:1F). The age structure was not constant, with an increase of older individuals toward summer. The population density was positively correlated with temperature, relative humidity, and day length. The residence time was lower for males, while the vagility was lower for females; the increment of resources at forest edges seems to increase the likelihood of occurrence of both sexes. The results shown here suggest that South Brazilian populations of B. polystictus have high ecological demands for spring and summer conditions, avoiding winter in diapause.
... The Homerus Swallowtail, Papilio (Pterourus) homerus Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae), is endemic to Jamaica (Garraway et al. 2008) and is the largest butterfly in the Western Hemisphere, with a forewing length greater than 80 mm (Emmel andGarraway 1990, 1994;Lehnert 2008), although some females exceed 90 mm (Bailey 2003;Vane-Wright and Hughes 2004). Likely due to anthropogenic factors, its range has dwindled from seven of Jamaica's 14 parishes to two isolated populations: an eastern population at the merger of the John Crow and Blue Mountain Ranges and a western population in the remote Cockpit Country (Brown and Heineman 1972;Garraway et al. 1993;Emmel 1995). ...
... The population size of P. homerus was estimated previously in the Cockpit Country (Lehnert 2008). During field observations, males of P. homerus performed conspecific circular flights. ...
... After 373 m, the path abruptly turned west and continued along a different mountainside; this right angle of the path received more sunlight than any other area of the path, and is referred to hereafter as Area 1 (Fig. 2). Area 1 was 482 m above sea level (asl) and had a treeless diameter of 9 m and a 30 m circumference that was sporadically lined with nectar sources such as Lantana camara L. (Verbeniaceae) and Tabernaetha montana Urb (Apocynaceae) that P. homerus and other Lepidoptera were observed to utilize (Lehnert 2008). In addition, the sole known host plant for the western population, Hernandia jamaicensis Britton and Harris (Hernandiaceae) (Emmel and Garraway 1990), was common in the forest. ...
The Homerus Swallowtail, Papilio (Pterourus) homerus, is an endangered butterfly endemic to Jamaica. We report conspecific male interactions observed in the Cockpit Country. Field observations of the patrolling behavior and the conspecific male circular flights suggest that males are territorial. Unlike most previous reports of male butterfly territoriality, physical contact occurs in the male circular flights, evidenced by the sound of the wings hitting each other, which may contribute to wing damage. We were able to quantify the extensive wing damage accumulated on a single territorial male with photographs; this male lost more than 90 percent of an individual wing, and still patrolled an area. In addition, we discuss the possible variables that might determine the outcome of territorial disputes, the habitat associated with territory establishment, and lekking in this species.
... This study suggests that there could be less than eight flying adults at a particular time in the Vatukarasa study site. Any further decline may push many populations below minimal viable limits (Lehnert, 2008). Therefore, it is imperative that P. schmeltzi be studied in detail for better management strategies to prevent a genetic bottleneck and a decrease in population size of this endemic species. ...
Fiji’s swallowtail butterfly, Papilio schmeltzi, is a Rutaceae feeding, tropical Papilionid butterfly that is endemic to the Fiji islands and generally occurs in low density. Field observations on habitat and the seasonal activity patterns of P. schmeltzi were carried out in the Vatukarasa area in Korolevu, Sigatoka over the course of one year. P. schmeltzi adults were found throughout the year but with dry and wet seasonal variation in abundance. High abundance was recorded for all the P. schmeltzi stages during the dry season (May to September). Adults and larvae were the most abundant when compared to eggs and pupae, and showed the greatest variation with respect to distribution of life stages throughout the year. P. schmeltzi currently occurs at four localities on the mainland and ten localities in the outer islands, with high abundance in Sigatoka and Koro Island. Adults of the species mainly occupy isolated forest edge habitat and gardens near forested areas and display a strong affinity for running water. At least two larval host plants, Micromelum minutum and Citrus reticulata, were found to sustain populations of P. schmeltzi, in its natural environment.
... The Homerus Swallowtail, Papilio (Pterourus) homerus Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae), is endemic to Jamaica (Garraway et al. 2008) and is the largest butterfly in the Western Hemisphere, with a forewing length greater than 80 mm (Emmel andGarraway 1990, 1994;Lehnert 2008), although some females exceed 90 mm (Bailey 2003;Vane-Wright and Hughes 2004). Likely due to anthropogenic factors, its range has dwindled from seven of Jamaica's 14 parishes to two isolated populations: an eastern population at the merger of the John Crow and Blue Mountain Ranges and a western population in the remote Cockpit Country (Brown and Heineman 1972;Garraway et al. 1993;Emmel 1995). ...
... The population size of P. homerus was estimated previously in the Cockpit Country (Lehnert 2008). During field observations, males of P. homerus performed conspecific circular flights. ...
... After 373 m, the path abruptly turned west and continued along a different mountainside; this right angle of the path received more sunlight than any other area of the path, and is referred to hereafter as Area 1 (Fig. 2). Area 1 was 482 m above sea level (asl) and had a treeless diameter of 9 m and a 30 m circumference that was sporadically lined with nectar sources such as Lantana camara L. (Verbeniaceae) and Tabernaetha montana Urb (Apocynaceae) that P. homerus and other Lepidoptera were observed to utilize (Lehnert 2008). In addition, the sole known host plant for the western population, Hernandia jamaicensis Britton and Harris (Hernandiaceae) (Emmel and Garraway 1990), was common in the forest. ...
The Homerus Swallowtail, Papilio (Pterourus) homerus, is an endangered butterfly endemic to Jamaica. We report conspecific male interactions observed in the Cockpit Country. Field observations of the patrolling behavior and the conspecific male circular flights suggest that males are territorial. Unlike most previous reports of male butterfly territoriality, physical contact occurs in the male circular flights, evidenced by the sound of the wings hitting each other, which may contribute to wing damage. We were able to quantify the extensive wing damage accumulated on a single territorial male with photographs; this male lost more than 90 percent of an individual wing, and still patrolled an area. In addition, we discuss the possible variables that might determine the outcome of territorial disputes, the habitat associated with territory establishment, and lekking in this species.
... Among insects, individual marking is often used for monitoring populations of butterflies (e.g. HOVESTADT, NOWICKI, 2008;LEHNERT, 2008), dragonflies (e.g. HANNON & HAFERNIK, 2007;WARD & MILL, 2007) and beetles (e. g. ...
Individual marking is used in many mark–recapture experiments. Due to this method, we have the best view on natural populations, including dispersion and migration. An individual marking of semiaquatic bugs was found necessary for understanding their population ecology, but ordinary methods failed. We tested modification of Piper´s method (2003) using photographic paper with printed char combination. Pronotum of Gerridae and Veliidae was primarily repainted by nail varnish; consequently, a label with a code was fixed and repainted by varnish again. Purpose was to check out a survival, flying abilities and a reproduction behavior in marked and control groups of semiaquatic bugs together with a durability of the codes. No difference in survival of marked and control specimens was found, the same as no influence in flight capability. The reproduction behavior was not affected, too. The tested method of individual marking allows monitoring of natural populations.
This is an 18-year study of the endangered Papilio (Pterourus) homerus, adding substantial information to our scanty knowledge of its ecology. The contraction of a once contiguous but narrow population on a single Caribbean island carries the serious threat of extinction. There are now two populations or probably metapopulations, effectively isolated from each other. The butterfly’s larvae feed on Hernandia catalpaefolia and H. jamaicensis, both endemic to Jamaica, and development takes ~84 days from egg to the emerged adult. Adult numbers fluctuate rapidly, with peaks in July/August each year. Egg distribution was studied at three spatial levels: the food item (leaf cluster), the patch (tree) and the habitat (each valley). Major causes of developmental mortality were Chrysonotomyia, a eulophid parasitoid of the eggs, and bacterial infection of the larvae and pupae. Critically, the mortality from this wasp was lower in undisturbed forest than in the area disturbed by agriculture, this finding having important consequences for conservation. Although there was no evidence of a decline in numbers over the last century, we believe this is an artefact due to collectors working only at the periphery of its distribution. Even assuming that its population densities have not changed, the contraction of its usable habitat implies a similar reduction in average numbers and the small populations are susceptible to disaster. The efforts of researchers, NGOs, and Government agencies have greatly increased the level of awareness, making the people in some key areas the ‘protectors of the species’.
The relict and threatened butterfly Pterourus esperanza (Beutelspacher, 1975) (Papilionidae) is known to have an extremely restricted distribution in the cloud forests of the Northern Sierra of Oaxaca, Mexico. Little is known of the conservation implications of its distribution, abundance, mobility, and population structure. In total, 411 transects (from May 2010 to May 2012) were performed along an altitudinal gradient (117–3,104 m) to estimate range, population abundance, and between-year population variations of P. esperanza. Mark-release-recapture experiments were performed to estimate population structure during March and April of 2011 (N = 32 d) in a 25-km2 landscape. Our results indicate that P. esperanza exhibited an extremely localized spatial distribution in the study region, mostly associated with cloud forest and pine-oak forest habitats distributed between 1,600 and 2,500 masl. Fixed transects throughout breeding populations registered a mean population density of 0.05 (±0.007 SE) individuals per 100-m transect, with no indication of significant between-year population variations (Mann-Whitney test, Z = -1.653; N = 148; P = 0.098). Based on mark-recapture data, we estimated a total population size of 243 (±36 SE) male individuals, and 43 (±13 SE) female individuals corresponding to a density of 11 individuals/km2, an extremely low population density. Our results indicate that P. esperanza persists in extremely low numbers and is vulnerable to stochastic and demographic variation. Habitat protection in conjunction with explicit agreements with the local communities is required to maintain populations and ensure the continuity of important cloud forest tracts for effective long-term conservation. This research provides a case study of conservation biology of a Neotropical butterfly, emphasizing the importance of acquiring ecological data to assist management recommendations.
