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Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs), which comprise multiple copies of nucleoporins (Nups), are large protein assemblies embedded in the nuclear envelope connecting the nucleus and cytoplasm. Although it has been known that Nups affect flowering in Arabidopsis, the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we show that loss of function of Nucleo...
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... verify that loss of function of Nup160 is responsible for the earlyflowering phenotype of nup160-2, an 11.4-kb genomic fragment of Nup160 (gNup160) that includes the 2.1-kb upstream sequence, the 9-kb coding sequence plus introns, and the 0.3-kb downstream sequence (Supplemental Figure 3A), was transformed into nup160-2. Most of the gNup160 nup160-2 T1 transformants displayed similar flowering time to wild-type plants, confirming that Nup160 is required for repressing the floral transition ( Figure 1E). ...
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... this end, we generated a SUC2:3FLAG-CO transgenic line, in which FLAG-tagged CO was driven by the promoter of SUCROSE TRANSPORTER 2 (SUC2) that is actively expressed in leaf companion cells where CO promotes FT transcription ( Imlau et al., 1999;An et al., 2004). SUC2:3FLAG-CO flowered earlier than wild-type plants and substantially rescued the late-flowering phenotype of co-9 ( Figure 3A and Supplemental Figure 5A), indicating that 3FLAG-CO protein retains its biological function in promoting flowering. We further crossed this SUC2:3FLAG-CO allele with nup160-2 (Supplemental Figure 5), and found that nup160-2 further accelerated SUC2:3FLAG-CO flowering as compared with SUC2:3FLAG-CO ( Figure 3A). ...
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... flowered earlier than wild-type plants and substantially rescued the late-flowering phenotype of co-9 ( Figure 3A and Supplemental Figure 5A), indicating that 3FLAG-CO protein retains its biological function in promoting flowering. We further crossed this SUC2:3FLAG-CO allele with nup160-2 (Supplemental Figure 5), and found that nup160-2 further accelerated SUC2:3FLAG-CO flowering as compared with SUC2:3FLAG-CO ( Figure 3A). In agreement with this phenotype, FT expression was significantly upregulated at ZT4 and ZT8 in SUC2:3FLAG-CO nup160-2 versus SUC2:3FLAG-CO ( Figure 3B). ...
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... further crossed this SUC2:3FLAG-CO allele with nup160-2 (Supplemental Figure 5), and found that nup160-2 further accelerated SUC2:3FLAG-CO flowering as compared with SUC2:3FLAG-CO ( Figure 3A). In agreement with this phenotype, FT expression was significantly upregulated at ZT4 and ZT8 in SUC2:3FLAG-CO nup160-2 versus SUC2:3FLAG-CO ( Figure 3B). This result is consistent with the observed pattern of upregulation of FT in nup160-2 versus wild-type plants under LDs ( Figure 2A). ...
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... result is consistent with the observed pattern of upregulation of FT in nup160-2 versus wild-type plants under LDs ( Figure 2A). In contrast, circadian expression of CO mRNA, including the endogenous CO and 3FLAG-CO, remained almost at the same levels in SUC2:3FLAG-CO nup160-2 and SUC2:3FLAG-CO ( Figure 3C). We then compared the circadian patterns of 3FLAG-CO expression in nuclear extracts of wild-type and nup160-2 plants. ...
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... then compared the circadian patterns of 3FLAG-CO expression in nuclear extracts of wild-type and nup160-2 plants. CO protein was expressed throughout the daytime with two peaks at ZT0.5 and ZT8 in wild-type plants, while its expression in nup160-2 was much higher at ZT0.5 and ZT4 ( Figure 3D and 3E). This increased expression of CO protein in nup160-2 is consistent with an increased FT expression in the morning ( Figure 3B), indicating that loss of function of Nup160 results in an increase in CO protein abundance in the morning period, which precociously activates FT expression. ...
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... protein was expressed throughout the daytime with two peaks at ZT0.5 and ZT8 in wild-type plants, while its expression in nup160-2 was much higher at ZT0.5 and ZT4 ( Figure 3D and 3E). This increased expression of CO protein in nup160-2 is consistent with an increased FT expression in the morning ( Figure 3B), indicating that loss of function of Nup160 results in an increase in CO protein abundance in the morning period, which precociously activates FT expression. ...
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... then proceeded to compare the spatial expression patterns of Nup160 and HOS1 by generating gNup160-GUS and gHOS1-GUS, in which the b-Glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene was fused in frame at the C terminus of Nup160 and HOS1 in their genomic fragments that were able to rescue their respective mutants (Supplemental Figure 3). Because most of (A) Flowering time of WT, nup160-2, co-9, SUC2:3FLAG-CO, SUC2:3FLAG-CO nup160-2, and SUC2:3FLAG-CO co-9 plants grown under long days (n R 16, ±SD). ...
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... previous studies identified HOS1 as a potential component associated with Arabidopsis NPCs, its localization results obtained through overexpressing GFP-tagged HOS1 were controversial ( Lee et al., 2001;Lazaro et al., 2015). To characterize and compare the endogenous subcellular localization of Nup160 and HOS1, we generated gNup160-GFP nup160-2 and GFP-gHOS1 hos1-3 transgenic lines, in which the early-flowering phenotype of nup160-2 and hos1-3 was rescued (Supplemental Figure 3A and 3B). Subcellular localization of Nup160-GFP and GFP-HOS1 was then examined in different tissues of gNup160-GFP nup160-2 and GFP-gHOS1 hos1-3. ...
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... overlapping tissue expression pattern and subcellular localization of Nup160-GFP and GFP-HOS1 prompted us to investigate their protein interaction. To perform in vivo bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assay, we created nEYFPgHOS1 gNup160-cEYFP transgenic plants, in which the coding sequences of the N-and C-terminal halves of the enhanced yellow fluorescence protein (EYFP) were fused in frame with the genomic sequences of HOS1 and Nup160 (Supplemental Figure 3A), respectively. nEYFP-gHOS1 gNup160-cEYFP was further crossed with the transgenic plants bearing cEYFP or nEYFP to obtain the control plants containing either nEYFPgHOS1 cEYFP or nEYFP gNup160-cEYFP, respectively. ...
Citations
... In plants, the core scaffold NUPs play important roles in many plant responses. NUPs like HOS1, Nup96, and Nup160 are localised in the outer ring complex and are also involved in regulating flowering time in higher plants [13,52,61]. In addition to Seh1, NUP133, NUP96, NUP85, NUP160, and HOS1 also seem to have some relevance to abiotic stress [134]. ...
Nucleopore Complexes are intricate protein assemblies composed of diverse nucleoporins, which serve as crucial mediators for the bidirectional movement of molecules between the nucleus and cytosol. These nucleoporins share both structural and functional characteristics across yeast, mammals, and plants. This review highlights these shared architectural elements and further examines specific nucleoporins. A particular emphasis is placed on the putative homologs yeast NUP1, human NUP153, and plant NUP136, and their shared involvement in critical processes such as developmental coordination, gene regulation, and immune responses. Despite variations in their amino acid sequences, these proteins exhibit a notable degree of structural conservation, supporting a convergent evolution that would underlie their similar functionalities.
... SAR1 and SAR3 are proteins similar to vertebrate nucleoporins that are part of the nuclear pore complex (NPC). Plants deficient in either protein exhibit pleiotropic growth defects partially affecting the translocation of proteins involved in hormonal signaling and plant development [42,43]. A large LD resulted in inclusion of many polymorphisms in this candidate region; for example, loci within a gene predicted to encode a tetratricopeptide repeat 9 (TPR9) protein involved in gibberellic acid regulation [44], fascinated stem 4 (Atfas4) protein and a Ring/Ubox super family (At1g01660) protein. ...
Plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) can enhance plant health by facilitating nutrient uptake, nitrogen fixation, protection from pathogens, stress tolerance and/or boosting plant productivity. The genetic determinants that drive the plant–bacteria association remain understudied. To identify genetic loci highly correlated with traits responsive to PGPB, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) using an Arabidopsis thaliana population treated with Azoarcus olearius DQS-4T. Phenotypically, the 305 Arabidopsis accessions tested responded differently to bacterial treatment by improving, inhibiting, or not affecting root system or shoot traits. GWA mapping analysis identified several predicted loci associated with primary root length or root fresh weight. Two statistical analyses were performed to narrow down potential gene candidates followed by haplotype block analysis, resulting in the identification of 11 loci associated with the responsiveness of Arabidopsis root fresh weight to bacterial inoculation. Our results showed considerable variation in the ability of plants to respond to inoculation by A. olearius DQS-4T while revealing considerable complexity regarding statistically associated loci with the growth traits measured. This investigation is a promising starting point for sustainable breeding strategies for future cropping practices that may employ beneficial microbes and/or modifications of the root microbiome.
... We could not detect a direct interaction between CPR5 and IAA12, but CPR5 directly interacts with NUP155 and NUP93a (56), which might also associate with other NUPs. The expression patterns of NUP genes vary across different tissues (87)(88)(89), raising the possibility that different combinations of NPCs might determine the selectivity of translocated proteins in each tissue. CPR5 induces not only the translocation of AUX/IAAs but also that of the defense-related proteins NONEXPRESSER OF PR GENES 1 (NPR1), JASMONATE-ZIM-DOMAIN PROTEIN 1 (JAZ1), and ABA-INSENSITIVE 5 (56). ...
Plasticity of the root system architecture (RSA) is essential in enabling plants to cope with various environmental stresses and is mainly controlled by the phytohormone auxin. Lateral root development is a major determinant of RSA. Abiotic stresses reduce auxin signaling output, inhibiting lateral root development; however, how abiotic stress translates into a lower auxin signaling output is not fully understood. Here, we show that the nucleo-cytoplasmic distribution of the negative regulators of auxin signaling AUXIN/INDOLE-3-ACETIC ACID INDUCIBLE 12 (AUX/IAA12 or IAA12) and IAA19 determines lateral root development under various abiotic stress conditions. The cytoplasmic localization of IAA12 and IAA19 in the root elongation zone enforces auxin signaling output, allowing lateral root development. Among components of the nuclear pore complex, we show that CONSTITUTIVE EXPRESSOR OF PATHOGENESIS-RELATED GENES 5 (CPR5) selectively mediates the cytoplasmic translocation of IAA12/19. Under abiotic stress conditions, CPR5 expression is strongly decreased, resulting in the accumulation of nucleus-localized IAA12/19 in the root elongation zone and the suppression of lateral root development, which is reiterated in the cpr5 mutant. This study reveals a regulatory mechanism for auxin signaling whereby the spatial distribution of AUX/IAA regulators is critical for lateral root development, especially in fluctuating environmental conditions.
... LOC_Os02g04970 is a homolog of AtNup16 in Arabidopsis. AtNup160 encodes a nucleoporin that prevents premature flowering by affecting the localization of HOS1 at the nuclear pore complex, which is required for the HOS1 function to degrade the CONSTANS (CO) protein [40]. Therefore, LOC_Os02g04970 may similarly control the rice heading stage to AtNup160. ...
... LOC_Os02g05030 is annotated as a putative sucrose phosphatase, which catalyzes the final step of the sucrose biosynthesis pathway [40]. Sucrose, the primary soluble carbohydrate product of photosynthesis in higher plants, can transport long distances from source leaves to sink flowers or seeds, supporting the development of non-photosynthetic tissues. ...
Grain number per panicle (GNPP), determined mainly by panicle branching, is vital for rice yield. The dissection of the genetic basis underlying GNPP could help to improve rice yield. However, genetic resources, including quantitative trait loci (QTL) or genes for breeders to enhance rice GNPP, are still limited. Here, we conducted the genome-wide association study (GWAS) on the GNPP, primary branch number (PBN), and secondary branch number (SBN) of 468 rice accessions. We detected a total of 18 QTLs, including six for GNPP, six for PBN, and six for SBN, in the whole panel and the indica and japonica subpanels of 468 accessions. More importantly, qPSG1 was a common QTL for GNPP, PBN, and SBN and was demonstrated by chromosome segment substitution lines (CSSLs). Considering gene annotation, expression, and haplotype analysis, seven novel and strong GNPP-related candidate genes were mined from qPSG1. Our results provide clues to elucidate the molecular regulatory network of GNPP. The identified QTLs and candidate genes will contribute to the improvement of GNPP and rice yield via molecular marker-assisted selection (MAS) breeding and genetic engineering techniques.
... Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) are the main channels controlling nucleocytoplasmic transport and comprise ∼30 nucleoporins (NUPs) (36). HIGH EXPRESSION OF OSMOTICALLY RESPONSIVE GENE1 (HOS1), one of the outer-ring components of NPCs (36,37), is integral to biological processes in plants including flowering, cold, and high-temperature responses (37)(38)(39)(40)(41)(42). Whether heat induces changes in the phosphorylation status of HS signaling transduction components and how the components transduce heat signals from the cytoplasm to the nucleus to regulate the genomic chromatin modification landscape are not well-understood. ...
Heat stress limits plant growth, development, and crop yield, but how plant cells precisely sense and transduce heat stress signals remains elusive. Here, we identified a conserved heat stress response mechanism to elucidate how heat stress signal is transmitted from the cytoplasm into the nucleus for epigenetic modifiers. We demonstrate that HISTONE DEACETYLASE 9 (HDA9) transduces heat signals from the cytoplasm to the nucleus to play a positive regulatory role in heat responses in Arabidopsis . Heat specifically induces HDA9 accumulation in the nucleus. Under heat stress, the phosphatase PP2AB′β directly interacts with and dephosphorylates HDA9 to protect HDA9 from 26S proteasome-mediated degradation, leading to the translocation of nonphosphorylated HDA9 to the nucleus. This heat-induced enrichment of HDA9 in the nucleus depends on the nucleoporin HOS1. In the nucleus, HDA9 binds and deacetylates the target genes related to signaling transduction and plant development to repress gene expression in a transcription factor YIN YANG 1–dependent and –independent manner, resulting in rebalance of plant development and heat response. Therefore, we uncover an HDA9-mediated positive regulatory module in the heat shock signal transduction pathway. More important, this cytoplasm-to-nucleus translocation of HDA9 in response to heat stress is conserved in wheat and rice, which confers the mechanism significant implication potential for crop breeding to cope with global climate warming.
... Photoperiod is known to regulate flowering in plants [128][129][130], hence in indoor production systems, photoperiod can be modulated to promote flowering in ornamental crops [131]. Notwithstanding, photoperiod has not been fully explored in indoor cultivation of leafy greens. ...
... Notwithstanding, photoperiod has not been fully explored in indoor cultivation of leafy greens. This may be due to the reason that photoperiods (14-18 h light) routinely used have not had pronounced effects on growth and phytonutrient accumulation compared to light quality and quantity [131][132][133]. Majority of studies with LEDs have been conducted using photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of between 150 and 300 μmol m −2 s −1 that is 7.5-15% of full sun [9]. ...
As the world’s population is increasing exponentially, human diets have changed to less healthy foods resulting in detrimental health complications. Increasing vegetable intake by both rural and urban dwellers can help address this issue. However, these communities often face the challenge of limited vegetable supply and accessibility. More so, open field vegetable production cannot supply all the vegetable needs because biotic and abiotic stress factors often hinder production. Alternative approaches such as vegetable production in greenhouses, indoor farms, high tunnels, and screenhouses can help fill the gap in the supply chain. These alternative production methods provide opportunities to use less resources such as land space, pesticide, and water. They also make possible the control of production factors such as temperature, relative humidity, and carbon dioxide, as well as extension of the growing season. Some of these production systems also make the supply and distribution of nutrients to crops easier and more uniform to enhance crop growth and yield. This paper reviews these alternative vegetable production approaches which include hydroponics, aeroponics, aquaponics and soilless mixes to reveal the need for exploring them further to increase crop production. The paper also discusses facilities used, plant growth factors, current challenges including energy costs and prospects.
... It is The copyright holder for this preprint this version posted April 5, 2022. ; https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.04.05.487178 doi: bioRxiv preprint AtSAR1 encodes a nucleoporin that shuttles the E3 ubiquitin ligase HOS1 to the nucleus, where it controls CO protein abundance (Dong et al., 2006;Li et al., 2020;Parry et al., 2006) and FLC gene expression (Jung et al., 2013). As a result, hos1 and sar1 mutants are early flowering due to increased CO protein levels (Li et al., 2020) and reduced FLC expression (Jung et al., 2013;Li et al., 2020). ...
... ; https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.04.05.487178 doi: bioRxiv preprint AtSAR1 encodes a nucleoporin that shuttles the E3 ubiquitin ligase HOS1 to the nucleus, where it controls CO protein abundance (Dong et al., 2006;Li et al., 2020;Parry et al., 2006) and FLC gene expression (Jung et al., 2013). As a result, hos1 and sar1 mutants are early flowering due to increased CO protein levels (Li et al., 2020) and reduced FLC expression (Jung et al., 2013;Li et al., 2020). Both hos1 and sar1 mutants also have lengthened circadian periods (MacGregor et al., 2013). ...
... ; https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.04.05.487178 doi: bioRxiv preprint AtSAR1 encodes a nucleoporin that shuttles the E3 ubiquitin ligase HOS1 to the nucleus, where it controls CO protein abundance (Dong et al., 2006;Li et al., 2020;Parry et al., 2006) and FLC gene expression (Jung et al., 2013). As a result, hos1 and sar1 mutants are early flowering due to increased CO protein levels (Li et al., 2020) and reduced FLC expression (Jung et al., 2013;Li et al., 2020). Both hos1 and sar1 mutants also have lengthened circadian periods (MacGregor et al., 2013). ...
Alternative splicing of messenger RNAs is associated with the evolution of developmentally complex eukaryotes. Splicing is mediated by the spliceosome, and docking of the pre-mRNA 5’ splice site into the spliceosome active site depends upon pairing with the conserved ACAGA sequence of U6 snRNA. In some species, including humans, the central adenosine of the AC A GA box is modified by N ⁶ methylation, but the role of this m ⁶ A modification is poorly understood. Here we show that m ⁶ A modified U6 snRNA determines the accuracy and efficiency of splicing. We reveal that the conserved methyltransferase, FIO1, is required for Arabidopsis U6 snRNA m ⁶ A modification. Arabidopsis fio1 mutants show disrupted patterns of splicing that can be explained by the sequence composition of 5’ splice sites and cooperative roles for U5 and U6 snRNA in splice site selection. U6 snRNA m ⁶ A influences 3’ splice site usage and reinforces splicing fidelity at elevated temperature. We generalise these findings to reveal two major classes of 5’ splice site in diverse eukaryotes, which display anti-correlated interaction potential with U5 snRNA loop 1 and the U6 snRNA AC A GA box. We conclude that U6 snRNA m ⁶ A modification contributes to the selection of degenerate 5’ splice sites crucial to alternative splicing.
... NUP160 and NUP96 stabilize HOS1 protein, a negative regulator of cold, to negatively regulate flower time via ubiquitination and subsequent 26s proteasome degradation of CONSTANT (CO). Coincidentally, NUP160, NUP96 and HOS1 all belong to the ORC component, and function in the regulation of flowering through controlling CO protein level [79,80]. ...
... Whether HOS1 is a component of NPC and whether it has nuclear localization are still controversial [112]. The GFP-HOS1 fluorescence signal is detectable in both the nuclear periphery and nucleoplasm, which implies that HOS1 may not be constitutively tethered by NPC [79]. Meanwhile, other proteins such as OPEN STOMATA 1(OST1) [113], BR INSENSITIVE 2 (BIN2) [105] affect the interaction between ICE1 and HOS1 to disturb the ubiquitination and degradation of ICE1 in cold resistance. ...
In eukaryotes, the nucleus is the regulatory center of cytogenetics and metabolism, and it is critical for fundamental biological processes, including DNA replication and transcription, protein synthesis, and biological macromolecule transportation. The eukaryotic nucleus is surrounded by a lipid bilayer called the nuclear envelope (NE), which creates a microenvironment for sophisticated cellular processes. The NE is perforated by the nuclear pore complex (NPC), which is the channel for biological macromolecule bi-directional transport between the nucleus and cytoplasm. It is well known that NPC is the spatial designer of the genome and the manager of genomic function. Moreover, the NPC is considered to be a platform for the continual adaptation and evolution of eukaryotes. So far, a number of nucleoporins required for plant-defense processes have been identified. Here, we first provide an overview of NPC organization in plants, and then discuss recent findings in the plant NPC to elaborate on and dissect the distinct defensive functions of different NPC subcomponents in plant immune defense, growth and development, hormone signaling, and temperature response. Nucleoporins located in different components of NPC have their unique functions, and the link between the NPC and nucleocytoplasmic trafficking promotes crosstalk of different defense signals in plants. It is necessary to explore appropriate components of the NPC as potential targets for the breeding of high-quality and broad spectrum resistance crop varieties.
... Whereas this phenotype might be related, at least in part, to defects in nuclear mRNA export (see chapter below), additional defects in protein stability and nuclear protein transport may contribute to the mutant phenotypes. In the case of NUP160 and NUP96, it was reported recently that both nucleoporins associate with and stabilize the E3-ubiquitin ligase HIGH EXPRESSION OF OSMOTICALLY RESPONSIVE GENES1 (HOS1) at the NPC (Figure 2 and Table 2), which negatively regulates flowering transition via ubiquitination and subsequent proteasomal degradation of CO Li et al., 2020). Loss of either HOS1, NUP96 or NUP160 results in nuclear accumulation of CO and subsequent CO-mediated transcriptional activation of FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT). ...
... Loss of either HOS1, NUP96 or NUP160 results in nuclear accumulation of CO and subsequent CO-mediated transcriptional activation of FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT). FT induces the expression of genes that contribute to the formation of floral primordia, providing an explanation for the early flowering phenotypes of hos1, nup96 and nup160 plants Li et al., 2020). ...
... While both, hos1 and nup160 plants, show an early flowering phenotype, the two mutants show opposite -i.e., enhanced (hos1) and reduced (nup160) -tolerance to cold stress (Dong et al., 2006a,b). Considering that NUP96 and NUP160 promote the stabilization and association of HOS1 at the NPC during flowering regulation Li et al., 2020), a scenario of mutual NUP160-HOS1 stabilization at the NPC appears unlikely in cold stress signaling, and might be attributed to the dynamic nuclear accumulation of HOS1 in response to low temperature (Lee et al., 2001). However, the localization of HOS1 has not been investigated in nup160 or nup96 plants grown under ambient or chilling/freezing conditions. ...
The double membrane of the nuclear envelope (NE) constitutes a selective compartment barrier that separates nuclear from cytoplasmic processes. Plant viability and responses to a changing environment depend on the spatial communication between both compartments. This communication is based on the bidirectional exchange of proteins and RNAs and is regulated by a sophisticated transport machinery. Macromolecular traffic across the NE depends on nuclear transport receptors (NTRs) that mediate nuclear import (i.e. importins) or export (i.e. exportins), as well as on nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) that are composed of nucleoporin proteins (NUPs) and span the NE. In this review, we provide an overview of plant NPC- and NTR-directed cargo transport and we consider transport independent functions of NPCs and NE-associated proteins in regulating plant developmental processes and responses to environmental stresses.
... Photoperiod is an environmental cue that regulates flowering (Bao et al., 2019;Chen et al., 2020;Li, Liu, Teo, Shen, & Yu, 2020;Liu, Li, Teo, Zhang, & Yu, 2019). It has been modulated to promote flowering in indoor ornamental crops (Lopez, Meng, & Runkle, 2020) and shorten generation time in crop breeding (Jähne, Hahn, Würschum, & Leiser, 2020). ...
Background
Agricultural production in controlled indoor farming offers a reliable alternative to food and nutrition supply for densely populated cities and contributes to addressing the impending food insecurity. Leafy vegetables, rich in vitamins, minerals, fibres and antioxidants, account for over half of the indoor farming operations worldwide. Light is the foremost environmental factor for plant growth and development, and the success of indoor farming largely depends on lighting qualities. The energy efficient light-emitting diode (LED) has been increasingly used in indoor farming systems.
Scope and approach
Here we provide an updated overview of the current indoor vertical farming systems, the mechanisms of light perception by photoreceptors, and the effects of LED spectra or intensity on growth and phytonutrient accumulation of leafy greens. We also outline the challenges in interpreting and applying the research findings in the field and highlight issues to be addressed.
Key findings and conclusions
Lighting quality and quantity can be manipulated to improve yield and phytonutrient contents of leafy greens. As responses of leafy greens to light are dependent on genotype and developmental stage, light recipe targeting different developmental stages should be formulated for different species for maximizing yield. While it has been known that blue wavelength has a more prominent positive impact on phytonutrient accumulation than red, little is known for other wavelengths. Moreover, recent findings that green wavelength inhibits plant growth in a blue-wavelength-dependent manner highlight the need for future research to investigate interactive effects of different wavelengths on modulating plant growth and metabolism.
