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Notched Izod impact strength of high-density polyethylene (HDPE)/ground tire rubber (GTR) composites as a function of rubber content. Adapted with permission from [50]; copyright 2019 John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
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Currently, plastics and rubbers are broadly being used to produce a wide range of products for several applications like automotive, building and construction, material handling, packaging, toys, etc. However, their waste (materials after their end of life) do not degrade and remain for a long period of time in the environment. The increase of poly...
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Rubbers and plastics are the widely used polymeric materials for various kinds of applications such as automobiles, packaging, constructions, material handling, sports and toys etc. Because of long durability and ease of manufacturing rubbers and plastics are vigorously used in last decades. However, long term durability of these materials becomes...
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... Additionally, additives, antioxidants, and llers further contribute to its resistance to biodegradation. 3,4 Discarded tires contribute signicantly to rubber waste in the environment, primarily because the tire production sector utilizes a substantial amount of raw rubber, accounting for approximately 70% of annual natural rubber (NR) production. 5 Projections suggest that the annual quantity of waste tires could reach 1.2 billion units by 2030. ...
... 28 In the following region, natural rubber (the major constituent of GTR) degrades at approximately 250 to 400°C. 4,29 In the next region, styrene-butadiene, which has higher thermal stability than natural rubber and is another major constituent of the GTR, is degraded at a temperature range of 400 to 480°C. 28 The char residue aer 500°C is attributed to carbon black, silica, and degraded natural rubber. ...
This work describes the devulcanization of ground tire rubber (GTR) with particle sizes ranging from 0.6 to 0.122 mm using a non-toxic, biodegradable, and biocompatible deep eutectic solvent (DES) based on choline chloride and urea. In addition to reducing the environmental impact of the process, other goals of this study were to minimize time and energy consumption. To meet these targets, a new de-vulcanization method has been developed. The methodology consists of using probe and bath sonication. The de-vulcanized rubber samples were then characterized using attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), electron dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Flory–Rehner and Horikx analyses were also carried out to calculate the devulcanization percentage and investigate the successful devulcanization of the samples through selective crosslink scission. The results showed that rubber samples of 120 mesh (0.122 mm) were devulcanized up to 58% by using 182 W power only during a 30 minutes process.
... This combination of benefits makes GFRPs a highly attractive material for engineers. [3] The growing problem of waste tires presents a critical opportunity for scientists and industry to collaborate on sustainable solutions that address environmental, social, and economic concerns [4], Using recycled rubber particles as a filler in composites can improve their impact resistance and reduce their density, which can be advantageous for certain applications [5]. Automotive bumpers, Marine components, building materials, and Impact-resistant flooring are some examples of how polyester-fiber composites filled with waste tire rubber particles can be used in different applications, depending on the desired mechanical behavior [6]. ...
... % fiberglass, theoretical densities are obtained. Likewise, Comp (3,4,5) contains the volume fraction % of material but with different laminate arrangements, 75% polyester, 20% rubber particles, and 5% fiberglass. The density of the composite is 1.0725 g/cm 3 . ...
The ever-growing problem of waste tire disposal necessitates the exploration of sustainable solutions. This research investigates the development of eco-friendly composites by incorporating recycled tire rubber particles into polyester-fiberglass laminates. The research focuses on the influence of two key factors: lamination configuration and the addition of waste tire rubber particles, on the mechanical performance of the composite plates, by correlating the lamination configuration, rubber particle content, microstructure, and resulting mechanical properties, the research aims to establish a comprehensive understanding of how these factors influence the performance of the eco-friendly composites. This knowledge will be valuable for optimizing the design and manufacturing processes of these composites for various applications where sustainability and tailored mechanical properties are critical. The results revealed that the inclusion of reinforcements significantly improves the material's performance. Fiberglass enhances its strength, while rubber particles, especially in specific configurations, improve its elasticity and strain resistance-this is confirmed by toughness and fracture strain tests. Notably, impact resistance also increases, making it suitable for high-impact applications
... This rubber has been used in the form of GTR either alone or blended with other matrices to produce different compounds and/or products. Some examples are thermoset [42,43] and thermoplastic [44,45] matrices, especially to produce thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) [37,46]. Several review articles have been published focusing on the applications of different tire raw materials for their valorization [26,35,45]. ...
The global demand for rubber is on a steady rise, which is driven by the increasing production of automobiles and the growing need for industrial, medical, and household products. This surge in demand has led to a significant increase in rubber waste, posing a major global environmental challenge. End-of-life tire (ELT) is a primary source of rubber waste, having significant environmental hazards due to its massive stockpiles. While landfilling is a low-cost and easy-to-implement solution, it is now largely prohibited due to environmental concerns. Recently, ELT rubber waste has received considerable attention for its potential applications in civil engineering and construction. These applications not only enhance sustainability but also foster a circular economy between ELT rubber waste with the civil engineering and construction sectors. This review article presents a general overview of the recent research progress and challenges in the civil engineering applications of ELT rubber waste. It also discusses commercially available recycled rubber-based construction materials, their properties, testing standards, and certification. To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this is the first time such a discussion on commercial products has been presented, especially for civil engineering applications.
... investigate the potential contribution of chemical recycling processes to plastic waste recycling using a materials flow analysis method. (Fazli and Rodrigue, 2020) present a review on the recycling options of rubber. Because rubber cannot be meaningfully recycled into similar materials, they focus on the use of recycled rubber waste into new (thermoplastic elastomer) materials, but conclude that also recycling into blended materials with acceptable properties is not yet a viable option. ...
... TPEs are a hybrid polymer material consisting of a hard segment and a soft segment. This class of material is in high demand because of its easy processability like thermoplastics and rubber-like elasticity [17][18][19][20][21]. TPEs possess immense industrial importance due to their excellent processability, superior mechanical properties along with recyclability, and excellent price-performance balance [22][23][24][25]. As a bridge between thermoplastics and elastomers, TPEs are in great demand [26][27][28]. ...
Additive manufacturing of thermoplastic elastomeric material (TPE) using direct ink writing (DIW) based printing technique opens new horizons for various applications. However, the most crucial process in DIW 3D printing is the optimization of printing parameters to obtain high-quality products both in terms of aesthetics and strength. In this work, statistical models were developed considering layer height, print speed, and, ink concentration to obtain the optimized print quality product from the blend of thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU)/ epichlorohydrin − ethylene oxide − allyl glycidyl ether elastomer (GECO) based TPE materials. Experiments were designed according to the central composite design (CCD) scheme and the influence of input printing parameters on shrinkage and tensile strength was analyzed. The significance of each parameter was systematically studied using the response surface method. For both responses, shrinkage, and tensile strength, printing speed was found to be the most significant parameter. Ink concentration significantly affected tensile strength with a contribution of ∼ 34%. On the other hand, the layer height, with a contribution of ∼ 22% significantly affected the shrinkage behaviour of the 3D printed sample. Finally, multi-objective optimization was performed using a genetic algorithm to identify the optimal 3D printing parameters of the developed TPE materials.
... This rubber has been used in the form of GTR either alone or blended with other matrices to produce different compounds and/or products. Some examples are thermoset [43,44] and thermoplastic [45,46] matrices, especially to produce thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) [37,47]. Table 1. ...
The global demand for rubber is on a steady rise, which is driven by the increasing production of automobiles and the growing need for industrial, medical, and household products. This surge in demand has led to a significant increase in rubber waste, posing a major global environmental challenge. End-of-life tire (ELT) is a primary source of rubber waste, which possesses significant environmental hazards due to its massive stockpiles. While landfilling is a low-cost and easy-to-implement solution, it is now largely prohibited due to environmental concerns. Recently, ELT rubber waste has garnered considerable attention for its potential applications in civil engineering and construction. These applications not only enhance sustainability but also foster a circular economy between ELT rubber waste and the civil engineering and construction sectors. This review article concentrates on the recent research progress and challenges in the civil engineering applications of ELT rubber waste. It also discusses commercially available recycled rubber-based construction materials, their properties, testing standards, and certification. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first time such a discussion on commercial products has been presented.
... Unlike thermosets, TPEs are recyclable materials because they involve physical cross-linking between polymer chains that can be thermally reversible. So they do not require vulcanization or curing and can be softened, melted, and processed repeatedly through blow molding, extrusion, and injection molding [7][8][9]. There are six categories of commercially accessible TPEs according to their morphology and chemical composition: copolyester thermoplastic elastomers (COPEs), thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPUs), styrene block copolymers (SBCs), polyamide-based thermoplastic elastomers (COPAs), rubbery-polyole n blends (TPOs), and dynamically vulcanized polymer blends (TPVs). ...
In this study, the effects of different concentrations of stearic acid-coated calcite (CaCO3) on the mechanical, thermal, and morphological properties of thermoplastic polyester elastomer (COPE or TPE-E) were investigated. At the same time, COPEs, which consist of process wastes, that are qualified as PIR (postindustrial recycled), were physically recycled. 100% recycled polymer composites were obtained by blending the physically recycled COPE polymer with stearic acid-coated calcite at different concentrations. COPE composites (virgin and PIR) containing different concentrations of calcite (5 to 30%wt) were prepared by melt compounding. It has been determined that mechanical properties such as flexural strength and modulus increase with calcite concentration, while tensile strength decreases at higher concentrations owing to the stronger interfacial relations between polymer matrix and stearic acid-coated calcite. It was observed that the thermal properties of the composite increased with the calcite filler concentration. Morphological studies revealed a good dispersion of calcite fillers at lower concentrations in the polymer matrix.
... Unlike thermosets, TPEs are recyclable materials because they involve physical cross-linking between polymer chains that can be thermally reversible. Therefore, these materials do not require vulcanization or curing and can be softened, melted, or processed repeatedly through blow molding, extrusion, or injection molding [7][8][9]. There are six categories of commercially accessible TPEs according to their morphology and chemical composition: copolyester thermoplastic elastomers (COPEs), thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPUs), styrene block copolymers (SBCs), polyamide-based thermoplastic elastomers (COPAs), rubbery-polyole n blends (TPOs), and dynamically vulcanized polymer blends (TPVs). ...
In this study, the effects of different concentrations of stearic acid-coated calcite (CaCO 3 ) on the mechanical, thermal, and morphological properties of thermoplastic polyester elastomers (COPE or TPE-E) were investigated. Moreover, COPEs, which consist of process wastes that are qualified as postindustrial recycled (PIR), were physically recycled. Recycled polymer composites (100%) were obtained by blending the physically recycled COPE polymer with stearic acid-coated calcite at different concentrations. COPE composites (virgin and PIR) containing different concentrations of calcite (5 to 30 wt%) were prepared by melt compounding. It has been determined that mechanical properties such as flexural strength and modulus increase with calcite concentration, while tensile strength decreases at higher concentrations owing to the stronger interfacial relationships between the polymer matrix and stearic acid-coated calcite. The thermal properties of the composite increased with increasing calcite filler concentration. Morphological studies revealed good dispersion of calcite fillers at lower concentrations in the polymer matrix.
... TPE can be shredded and compression molded. Again, it is a simple process that is not widely practiced [15]. Miscellaneous polymers such as bioplastics are rarely recycled because they are unsuitable for conventional methods. ...
The impact of plastic pollution on the world and its inhabitants is yet to be fully measured. Significant quantities of microplastics and nanoplastics have been found in human organs, and many diseases have been traced to their presence. Even human placentas have been found to contain microplastics. This study examines the recycling landscape, advanced reprocessing techniques, and technical challenges in this industry. It points out the top recyclable types of plastics (such as high-density polyethylene, polyethylene terephthalate, and thermoplastic elastomers) by analyzing their different recycling capacities globally. It highlights the most advisable recycling techniques by identifying those most successful, least environmentally damaging, and easiest. Mechanical recycling is arguably the easiest and most common recycling technique. This study examines mechanical reprocessing technologies for construction materials, composite boards, additive manufacturing, and other applications. It also points out prevailing setbacks of these approaches and analyzes different solutions. Promising recycling processes are suggested for further investigation.
... Hence, most discarded tires go to landfills or are incinerated [8]. To combat this, sustainable recycling methods are being developed for rubber waste [9]. Recycled rubber shows promise in composite materials, especially when combined with silica waste from agricultural sources like rice husk [10]. ...
Rubber waste, primarily from discarded tires, is emerging as a significant environmental challenge. As the world produces 1.5 billion tires annually, this creates a vast amount of non-degradable waste. This often results in these tires accumulating in landfills or being burned, both of which pose severe environmental threats. Recognizing this issue, researchers have turned their focus to innovative recycling techniques. One such method involves transforming rubber waste into valuable composites. They are doing this by combining rubber with agricultural silica wastes, such as rice husk ash. This amalgamation results in the creation of environmentally-friendly dielectric materials suitable for electronic and electrical applications. Epoxy resin forms the base of this composite matrix. When supplemented with waste-derived nanofillers, the resin exhibits improved heat conductivity and mechanical resilience. These enhanced nanocomposite insulators have proven superior to their pure epoxy counterparts. The study also delved into insulator designs, evaluating various fin types to optimize high-voltage insulation. For dry environments, Isolator C with its unique fractal fins stood out, while for wet conditions, Isolator B’s serrated fins were ideal. This groundbreaking work showcases that rubber waste, when combined with agricultural by- products, can lead to sustainable advancements in the electronics sector.
