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Research concerning tsunami forces on bridges has focused primarily on determining total forces either experimentally or numerically, often with the goal of establishing total force demand equations. However, this approach does not provide an understanding of which bridge components contribute to the total force demands as well as the individual co...
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... To assess the impact of tsunami forces on the performance of structures, a large number of research endeavors have been conducted, including experimental tests (Hayashi et al., 2013;Seiffert et al., 2015;Nakamura et al., 2016;Huang et al., 2018;Huang and Chen, 2020;Istrati and Buckle, 2021;Farvizi et al., 2021) and numerical investigations (Azadbakht and Yim, 2015;Xu and Cai, 2015;Shoji and Nakamura, 2017;Winter et al., 2018;Zhao et al., 2020;Mazinani et al., 2021;Yang et al., 2021;Xu et al., 2022;Chen et al., 2023;Wu et al., 2023). For instance, Nakao et al. (2013) presented the mechanism behind tsunami-induced behavior in bridge superstructures using a series of flume tests and analytical analyses. ...
Coastal bridges are particularly prone to damage caused by prior earthquakes, rendering them more vulnerable to subsequent hazards. The potential occurrence of a near-field tsunami can significantly exacerbate this damage, leading to detrimental environmental and economic impacts. Aiming to quantitatively assess these consequences, this study delves into the multihazard resilience and sustainability of a typical coastal Reinforced Concrete (RC) bridge under sequential earthquake-tsunami events. As such, a nonlinear three-dimensional (3D) finite element (FE) framework is established, seamlessly merging the economic input-output life cycle assessment (EIO-LCA) methodology with the principles of performance-based earthquake engineering (PBEE). To minimize the uncertainty in the probabilistic seismic demand model and the subsequent PBEE outcomes, an optimal intensity measure is chosen based on a comprehensive evaluation of efficiency, correlation, and coefficient of variation. Consequently, the multihazard resilience of the coastal RC bridge is assessed according to the repair time, repair cost, and carbon footprint. It is shown that bridges are more vulnerable under sequential earthquake-tsunami events compared to earthquake events alone, leading to notably increased carbon footprints and reduced resilience levels. Overall, the developed framework enhances the assessment of coastal RC bridge performance, providing valuable insights into the consequences for both the environment and socioeconomic aspects resulting from bridge damage during sequential earthquake and tsunami events.
... The factors affecting tsunami loads on bridges are mainly related to wave height, wave speed and girder clearance height, and the effects of these factors have been studied by many scholars [14,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25]. These studies show that tsunami forces increase with an increasing wave height and speed and increase with a decreasing girder clearance height. ...
... For the effect of the shape of the girder on tsunami forces, Winter et al. [23] investigated numerically the variation of the tsunami force in three-girder cases and two-girder cases; the results showed that the peak tsunami force in the three-girder cases was larger than that in the two-girder cases. Yang et al. [19] numerically investigated the tsunami forces for T-girder and box girder bridges, and the results showed that T-girder bridges have higher and more persistent horizontal peak forces. ...
Many coastal bridges have been destroyed or damaged by tsunami waves. Some studies have been conducted to investigate wave impact on bridge decks, but there is little concerning the effect of bridge superelevation. A three-dimensional (3D) dam break wave model based on OpenFOAM was developed to study tsunami-like wave impacts on bridge decks with superelevation. The Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations and the k-ɛ turbulence model were used. The numerical model was satisfactorily checked against Stoker’s analytical solution and the published hydrodynamic experiment. The validated model was employed to carry out parametric analyses to investigate the effects of upstream and downstream water depths and the bridge deck’s superelevation. The results show that the tsunami force is proportional to the relative wave height. The dam break wave impact on the bridge deck can be identified as two distinct scenarios according to whether the wave height is higher than the bridge deck top. The trend of the tsunami force is also different in different scenarios. The superelevation will significantly influence the tsunami forces acting on the box girder, with some exceptions.
... The experimental observations by Sheppard and Marin (2009) are widely accepted and reproduced by many researchers, including the development of wave-load calculation guidelines by AASHTO (2008). Winter et al. (2018) reported that the vertical impulse force due to waves increased due to an increase in girder spacing. Most prominent studies concerning wave loads on coastal and offshore bridges are focused on wave-induced loads on superstructures. ...
... Nonlinearity of waves arises primarily due to the effect of high winds. Tsunami forces are not limited to extreme waves only, but include the radiation and dynamic forces due to the earthquake as well (Du et al. 2014;Wang et al. 2019;Carey et al. 2019). Similarly, during hurricanes, there is a significant force associated with high winds that affects the loading pattern on the structure (Zhu and Zhang 2017). ...
A number of coastal bridges faced significant damage due to recent natural hazards, inducing extreme waves. The fragility function is the basic step for assessing the resilience of a structure, thereby allowing the designers to alleviate post-event structural disasters and develop improved design methods for new structures. The majority of the focus of fragility functions developed in literature are concentrated on superstructure components and wave load on bridge decks. This paper presents a simplified methodology for the definition of damage states of the substructure component (pier drift) due to wave loads acting on piers as well as the bridge deck. The hazard intensity parameters representing the extreme wave loads chosen for this study are wave period, wave height, and still water depth. The Latin hypercube sampling technique is applied to consider the uncertainties in the intensity parameters as well as the material properties for the finite-element bridge models. Results indicate that the wave period is the most dominant factor affecting the wave-load intensity. The deck-level loading caused a higher probability of failure compared with the pier-level wave loading scenario. In both loading scenarios considered, the elastomeric bearing and shear keys are found to be one of the most vulnerable components in the system-level fragility curves developed. The system-fragility curves generated in this paper can be used to assess the resiliency of coastal bridges subjected to extreme wave-induced loads. The findings of this paper will also add to the risk mitigation and reliability assessment of coastal structures under multi-hazard conditions.
... The Navier-Stokes equations have been adopted by several researchers to simulate the incompressible fluid behavior in FSI programs [30,37] for coastal bridge decks subjected to tsunami like wave loading. The study by Bea et al. [10] was extended by Baarholm and Faltinsen [8] where the offshore platform decks subjected to extreme water wave loads were studied using an experimental analysis and several [6] theoretical methods such as Wagner-based method and Green's second identity. ...
Observation from recent catastrophic events and model projections indicate that changes to the climate system are taking place at unprecedented rates. Increased number of natural hazards created a stark realization for the bridge engineering community regarding the vulnerability of bridges under extreme wave loading. Severe damage due to wave loading on offshore and coastal bridges is one of the most alarming concerns for bridge owners and engineers. Recent events of hurricanes and tsunamis prompted researchers and practitioners to advance the bridge design methods to withstand storm wave attacks and avoid the consequences which often are catastrophic. One major challenge in designing a coastal bridge is the evaluation of design forces due to the waves. Several studies have been done in the past outlining the methods of calculating the wave loads on bridges experimentally and numerically. This paper provides a systematic review of the existing literature focusing on determination as well as simulation of the various types of wave loadings, namely quasi-static and slamming. This review incorporates the evaluation of wave forces on both bridge substructure and superstructure subjected to partial submersion as well as complete inundation. Also, an investigation of the changes in wave loading due to variation in the cross section of bridge piers based on the Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code is presented.
... On the contrary, literature about modeling the hydrodynamic forces of the fluid on bridges due to riverine floods is limited, especially concerning fragility models or reliability analysis (Pregnolato, 2019;Gidaris et al., 2017). Existing research investigated tsunami impact to bridges (e.g., Motley et al., 2016;Lomonaco et al., 2018;Qin et al., 2018;Winter et al., 2017), where computational fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques are used to compute hydrodynamic forces on bridges and components. Li et al. (2021) advanced a CFDbased numerical study on the tsunami-induced scour around bridge piers. ...
Flood events are the most frequent cause of damage to
infrastructure compared to any other natural hazard, and global changes
(climate, socioeconomic, technological) are likely to increase this damage.
Transportation infrastructure systems are responsible for moving people,
goods and services, and ensuring connection within and among urban areas. A
failed link in these systems can impact the community by threatening
evacuation capability, recovery operations and the overall economy. Bridges
are critical links in the wider urban system since they are associated with
little redundancy and a high (re)construction cost. Riverine bridges are
particularly prone to failure during flood events; in fact, the risks to
bridges from high river flows and erosion have been recognized as
crucial at global level. The interaction of flow, structure and network
is complex, and not fully understood. This study aims to establish a
rigorous, multiphysics modeling approach for the assessment of the
hydrodynamic forces impacting inundated bridges, and the subsequent
structural response, while understanding the consequences of such impact on
the surrounding network. The objectives of this study are to model hydrodynamic forces as demand on the bridge structure, to advance a performance
evaluation of the structure under the modeled loading, and to assess the
overall impact at systemic level. The flood-prone city of Carlisle (UK) is
used as a case study and a proof of concept. Implications of the
hydrodynamic impact on the performance and functionality of the surrounding
transport network are discussed. This research will help to fill the gap
between current guidance for design and assessment of bridges within the
overall transport system.
... Other laboratory experiments on bore impact on horizontal decks include those of Chen et al. (2018) and Zhu et al. (2018). This problem has also been studied using computational fluid dynamics (Motley et al. 2016;Winter et al. 2018;Yang et al. 2020) and the smoothed particle hydrodynamics method (Wei and Dalrymple 2016). Ramsden and Raichlen (1990) studied the bore-induced forces on vertical walls, water particle velocity on the bore surface, and the bore runup on the wall through laboratory experiments. ...
Bore impact on horizontal fixed decks of coastal structures is studied by use of the Level I Green-Naghdi (GN) equations and the Navier-Stokes (NS) equations. The bore is generated by the breaking of a water reservoir, and may represent the propagation of a tsunami on land or broken storm waves. The bore-induced horizontal and vertical forces are determined and their variation with the bore and deck conditions is studied in this work. Various conditions of deck location with respect to the water level are considered, including cases with the deck under or above the still-water level. Two types of bore are considered, namely (i) a bore generated by a dam break, where the reservoir water depth is substantially larger than the downstream depth, and (ii) a bore generated by an initial mound of water, where the reservoir water depth is comparable to the downstream depth. It is shown that these mechanisms result in the formation of significantly different bore shapes. It is also shown that the relative height of the reservoir and the downstream water depth play a significant role in the bore generation and its impact on coastal structures. It is also found that the bore-induced forces vary almost linearly with the change in amplitude of the reservoir, while a change in the length of the reservoir has little effect on the loads. The horizontal force on submerged decks is shown to be independent of the submergence depth of the deck; this is due to the uniform velocity distribution over the water column of the bore. Results of the GN and NS models are compared with each other for submerged cases and the limitations, accuracy, and efficiency of these models in studying this problem are discussed. Results of the GN equations are in close agreement with the NS equations, making them a computationally efficient alternative for the study of this problem.
... Meanwhile, the tsunami flow could induce large vertical uplift forces that cause large overturning moment on the bridge superstructures, and hence the bridges could be easily damaged by the tsunami flow. In addition, some recent studies (Istrati et al. 2018;Winter et al. 2018;Istrati and Buckle 2019) highlight the importance of evaluating the distribution of tsunami forces on individual components in addition to the total tsunami loading due to the complex failure mechanism of bridge superstructures under tsunami flow. These studies could help to understand the damage effects of tsunami loading on coastal bridges. ...
Coastal reinforced concrete (RC) bridges have the potential to be subjected to tsunami hazards within their service life. On the other hand, the time-dependent chloride-induced corrosion will degrade the performance of the bridges. Few efforts have been made to investigate the life-cycle performance of deteriorating RC bridges subjected to tsunami hazards. In this paper, the time-dependent collapse fragility analysis is conducted to investigate the life-cycle performance of deteriorating RC bridges subjected to tsunami hazards. With corrosion modeling, the time-dependent deterioration of material properties as well as shear capacity deterioration of the columns are considered. Uncertainties from materials are accounted for in developing numerical bridge models. Nonlinear tsunami pushover analysis is used to investigate the bridge damage under tsunami loading. Tsunami collapse failure curves are constructed assuming a lognormal distribution, and the time-dependent tsunami collapse fragility curves can be efficiently calculated with the quadratic model for the median and standard deviation of tsunami intensity, that is, flow velocity. Time-dependent collapse fragility analysis is conducted for a three-span, two-column bent RC bridge. Results indicate that the bridge columns can fail in shear for low inundation depth flow and high corrosion levels. Collapse failure probability of the bridge increases with the flow depth and a clear jump of collapse failure probability for inundation depth from below to above the deck can be observed. The collapse failure probability also increases over time due to corrosion effects.
... The dam-breaking wave model has been widely used to simulate tsunamis (e.g., Hoshikuma et al. 2012;Motley et al. 2016;Nakao et al. 2012;Shoji and Moriyama 2008;Shoji et al. 2011Shoji et al. , 2012. The dam-breaking wave is considered to be more appropriate to generate a turbulent tsunami bore (Winter et al. 2018;Asadollahi et al. 2019). Chanson (2006) compared the analytical results of the dam-breaking wave with surge data observed during the December 26, 2004, tsunami catastrophe. ...
... Moreover, the effects of the girder inclination (Winter et al. 2018;Xu and Cai 2015b), the nearby girder for the twin bridge girder (Xu et al. 2016b(Xu et al. , 2017b, and the skew angle of the bridges (Motley et al. 2016) on the wave forces have been comprehensively investigated recently. A prediction method for the wave forces is urgently required for coastal bridges. ...
... Xu et al. (2016b), based on component level analysis, assessed the influence of each girder component on the total wave forces. Winter et al. (2018) and Yang et al. (2020) investigated the tsunami-induced forces on T-type girders with traffic barriers, which were based on component level analysis. These previous component level studies provided an understanding of how the forces on each girder component influence the total wave forces on a T-type girder. ...
This paper will present a comparative study of tsunami-induced forces on box girder and T-girder bridges, which will be based on component level analysis. Component level analysis can explain the overall loading behavior and can further illustrate the reason for the difference in the forces between these two types of girder. First, in the numerical simulation, a three-dimensional (3D) dam-breaking model (at 1/20-scale) will be developed to generate bore-type tsunami waves. The Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations, combined with the k−ɛ turbulence model will be utilized for the wave simulations. Then, the effectiveness of the numerical model will be verified with the experimental results. The tsunami-induced forces on the box girder and T-girder bridges will be compared and the differences will be discussed in detail based on the component level analysis. In addition, parametric analyses will be conducted to study the influence of the wave momentum flux and still water level (SWL). The results show that: (1) the T-girder bridge witnesses higher and longer-lasting horizontal peak forces. The box girder bridge had significantly larger upward forces than the T-girder bridge, (2) for both type of girders, the upstream web and upstream deck were the major contributors to the maximum horizontal and vertical forces, respectively. Special attention should be paid to the local damage to these components, (3) when the wave is high enough to impact on the whole girder, the differences caused by the girder shape on the horizontal impulse loads can be negligible, and (4) the difference in the vertical impulse loads between these two types of girders continually increases with the momentum flux. For the large momentum flux cases, the vertical impulse loads on the box girder could be 1.7–2.2 times that on the T-type girder.
... The numerical modeling of tsunamis often includes modeling multiple phases with very different scales, including tsunami generation from the source (e.g., Nosov, 2014;Okada, 1985), long-distance propagation (e.g., Choi et al., 2003;George & LeVeque, 2006;Titov & Gonzalez, 1997), local inundation of coastal regions (e.g., Park et al., 2013;Qin et al., 2017, and its interaction with coastal structures (e.g., Motley et al., 2015;Winter et al., 2017). Some computer codes use separate models for different phases of tsunamis, while some integrate the modeling of multiple phases into a single simulation (e.g., Macías et al., 2016;Zhang & Baptista, 2008), facing the computational challenges induced by very different scales (from thousands of kilometers to tens of meters) in the problem. ...
Solving the shallow water equations efficiently is critical to the study of natural hazards induced by tsunami and storm surge, since it provides more response time in an early warning system and allows more runs to be done for probabilistic assessment where thousands of runs may be required. Using Adaptive Mesh Refinement (AMR) speeds up the process by greatly reducing computational demands, while accelerating the code using the Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) does so through using faster hardware. Combining both, we present an efficient CUDA implementation of GeoClaw, an open source Godunov-type high-resolution finite volume numerical scheme on adaptive grids for shallow water system with varying topography. The use of AMR and spherical coordinates allows modeling transoceanic tsunami simulation. Numerical experiments on the 2011 Japan tsunami and a local tsunami triggered by a hypothetical Mw 7.3 earthquake on the Seattle Fault illustrate the correctness and efficiency of the code, which implements a simplified dimensionally-split version of the algorithms. Both numerical simulations are conducted on sub-regions on a sphere with adaptive grids that adequately resolve the propagating waves. The implementation is shown to be accurate and faster than the original when using CPUs alone. The GPU implementation, when running on a single GPU, is observed to be 3.6 to 6.4 times faster than the original model running in parallel on a 16-core CPU. Three metrics are proposed to evaluate relative performance of the model, which shows efficient usage of hardware resources.
... For example, Nistor et al. (2011) conducted experiments on tsunami loading on a structure using a high discharge flume. Winter et al. (2018) investigated the tsunami wave force on bridge components using a twodimensional (2D) vertical flow model based on the Navier-Stokes (NS) equations. Wei et al. (2015) investigated the dynamic impact of tsunami bore on bridge piers using a smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) model. ...
A new hybrid simulation technique has been developed to assess the behavior of a structure under hydrodynamic loading. It integrates the computational fluid dynamics and structural hybrid simulation and couples the fluid loading and structural response at each simulation step. The conventional displacement-based and recently developed force-based hybrid simulation approaches are adopted in the structural analysis. The concept, procedure, and required components of the proposed hybrid simulation are introduced in this article. The proposed hybrid simulation has been numerically and physically tested in case of a coastal building impacted by a tsunami wave. It is demonstrated that the force error in the displacement-based approach is significantly larger than that in the force-based approach. The force-based approach allows for a more realistic and reliable structural assessment under tsunami loading.
