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![Nettle caterpillar [4]](profile/Lotte-Woittiez/publication/312331175/figure/fig40/AS:866052422504451@1583494396750/Nettle-caterpillar-4.jpg)
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Module 1: Planting Material, 24 pages.
Module 2: Harvesting, Grading, Transport, 25 pages.
Module 3: Plantation Maintenance, 53 pages.
Module 4: Fertiliser Application, The Netherlands, 64 pages.
Module 5: Pests and Diseases, The Netherlands, 29 pages.
Context in source publication
Context 1
... are several leaf-eating pests which sometimes infest oil palm plantations. The most important ones in Southeast Asia are bagworms (Pteroma pendula, Metisa plana, Mahasena corbetti), tussock moths (Dasychira spp., Orgyia spp.), and nettle caterpillars (Darna trima, Setora nitens, Setothosea asigna; see Figure 8). Each of these insects eats through the oil palm leaf, so their presence is easily recognisable by the holes in the leaves (see Figure 9). ...
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Oil palm has become an important source of revenue for smallholders in Indonesia, but productivity of smallholder plantations is generally poor. Nutrient limitations have been suggested as an important agronomic constraint to yield. Our research aimed to quantify fertiliser use, soil and tissue nutrient status, and palm growth and yield in a sample...
Citations
... The interviewed certified smallholders on average followed a harvesting rotation of 14 days, which is longer than the recommended 7-10 harvesting interval, but typical for smallholders (Woittiez et al., 2016). However, former scheme group managers explained that there was a difference between FFB produced on former scheme land and FFB produced on non-scheme land. ...
Smallholders, who cultivate ±30% of the global palm oil land, are critical to the realization of a sustainable palm oil sector. However, particularly independent smallholders, untied to mills, lag behind in yields and experience challenges to market their produce. Sustainability certification, such as by the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), is proposed as a way to improve smallholder livelihoods, while protecting the environment. However , independent smallholders experience barriers to obtain certification. Through interviews with 18 RSPO certified independent smallholder groups in Indonesia and 9 certification facilitators, this study examines how pre-certification conditions regarding smallholders' socioeconomic backgrounds, legality, group organization, planation management practices, and local supply chain conditions impact prospects for RSPO certification, and how groups who successfully achieved certification have dealt with challenges during the certification process. We found that the majority (77%) of RSPO certified independent smallholders in Indonesia consists of 'former scheme' smallholders. These smallholders often have clear land legality and are organized in groups prior to certification, which increases their eligibility for RSPO certification. However, due to upfront and recurrent costs for certification, as well as complexities in meeting RSPO standards, access to certification is strongly dependent on external facilitators. To up-scale certification for independent oil palm smallholders, and include more non-scheme smallholders, certification projects should involve more local actors including local governments and certified smallholder groups. In addition, certification should focus on core social and environmental concerns for smallholders, while being flexible with regards to the forms of proof needed to fulfil legality requirements.
... We measured GAP in peat land cultivation, primarily adopted from the Food and Agriculture Organization Good Agricultural Practices [24,46]. We combined the indicators on the basis of a diagnostic smallholder constructed by Woittiez et al. [96]. Then, we classified GAP systematically into six dimensions; namely, fertilization techniques, harvest and pruning techniques, drainage and transportation, parasite control and planting system, soil and water quality, and farm and financial management (in Table 1), as pursued by Choo and Abu-Bakar [2], and Woittiez et al. [76]. ...
With economically unsustainable metroxylon sagu (sago palms) found in peat lands, small scale farmers are gradually converting their land to oil palm cultivation. Good agriculture practices (GAP) were inculcated to peat land farmers to ensure that the environmental ecosystem is conserved and oil palm productivity is enhanced, along with the farmer’s well-being. The present study examined the effect of GAP on farm performance and the perceived economic well-being of the peat land oil palm farmers. We interviewed randomly selected farmers with assistance from a locally trained native enumerator to complete the survey questionnaire. We conducted partial least square structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to incorporate direct and indirect benefits on farmers’ economic well-being to estimate the significance of GAP. The empirical results show that GAP have direct positive effects on farm performance. Such practices lead to significant positive impacts on the economic well-being of peat land oil palm farmers. This solid evidence makes it much easier for small-scale farmers to convert from conventional farming to environmentally friendly farming, and ensures safe and healthy oil palm cultivation.
... Plantation assessments (or 'audits') are common practice in company plantations (Fairhurst and Griffiths, 2014) and were also conducted for this study. Indicators on GAP were based on a diagnostic smallholder survey instrument develop by Aidenvironment (2013) and a smallholder oil palm handbook by Woittiez et al. (2015), which are both richly illustrated with photographic material and provide an extensive set of inspection criteria and guidelines on how to conduct smallholder plantation assessments. Sections from these documents were, with permission, translated into Bahasa Indonesia, used as training materials and shared with surveyors as reference material. ...
Palm oil has become a leading vegetable oil over the past 30 years and smallholder farmers in Indonesia, with more than 12 million hectare the world's largest producer of palm oil, have massively engaged in oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) cultivation. In Sumatra, where more than 60% of Indonesian palm oil is cultivated, smallholders currently cover roughly 50% of the oil palm area. The rapid expansion of palm oil however did not happen without controversy. In current efforts by the Indonesian government, NGO's and private sector to improve sector performance, smallholders are often characterized as the Achilles heel of the oil palm sector due to poor practices and low yields compared to companies. However, 'oil palm smallholders' is a container concept and there has been only limited research into smallholder diversity beyond the organised versus independent farmer dichotomy. This research delves into the implementation of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) among seven types of independent smallholders in Rokan Hulu regency, Riau province. The research area consisted of a relative established agricultural area on mineral soils and a relative frontier, mostly on peat. Smallholder types ranged from small local farmers to large farmers who usually reside in urban areas far from their plantation and regard oil palm cultivation as an investment opportunity. The underlying hypothesis is that larger farmers have more capital and therefore implement better agricultural practices than small farmers, who are usually more cash constrained. A wide range of methods was applied, including farmer and farm surveys, remote sensing, tissue analysis and photo interpretation by experts. These methods provided data on fertilizer use, nutrient conditions in oil palms, planting material, planting patterns, and other management practices in the plantations. Results show that yields are poor, implementation of GAP are limited and there is much room for improvement among all farmer types. Poor planting materials, square planting patterns, and limited nutrient applications were particularly prevalent. This implies that farmers across different typologies opt for a low-input low-output system for a myriad of reasons and that under current conditions, initiatives such as improving access to finance or availability of good planting material alone are unlikely to significantly improve the productivity and sustainability of the smallholder oil palm sector.
Palm oil is currently the most important vegetable oil in the world, and Indonesia is the world’s largest producer. Oil palm plantations are an important source of revenue, but rapid expansion has led to deforestation and loss of biodiversity. Forty per cent of the plantation area in Indonesia is owned by smallholders, whose yields are relatively poor. The objective of this thesis was to investigate the yield gaps and agronomic practices in Indonesian smallholder oil palm plantations, with a focus on fertiliser application, and to propose and test better management practices that can contribute to sustainable intensification. The research consisted of an in-depth literature review, several surveys, the collection of samples in smallholder plantations, and a three-year experiment with 14 smallholder farmers.
In yield gap analysis, three yield levels are recognised: potential, limited, and actual yield. The potential yield in a plantation is determined by radiation, CO2 concentration, temperature, planting material, culling, planting density, pruning, pollination, and crop recovery (harvesting). The yield-limiting factors are rainfall, irrigation, soil, waterlogging, topography, slope, and nutrition. The yield-reducing factors are weeds, pests, and diseases. In smallholder plantations, the yield gap is mostly explained by poor planting material, poor drainage, sub-optimal planting density, poor culling (leading to large variability and the presence of unproductive palms), infrequent harvesting, soil erosion, poor nutrient management, and rat damage, but the effects of these factors on yield vary depending on local conditions.
The survey data showed clear evidence of insufficient and unbalanced fertiliser applications, and visual nutrient deficiency symptoms were observed in many plantations. Leaf sample results showed that 57, 61 and 80% of the plantations in Jambi and Sintang were deficient in N, P and K, respectively. In Riau, 95, 67 and 75% of the plantations were deficient in N, P and K. The implementation of better management practices (including harvesting, weeding, pruning, and nutrient application) in 14 smallholder fields for three years resulted in palms with significantly larger leaves and heavier bunches compared with palms under farmer management, but improvements in yield were small and not statistically significant, and financial returns on better practices were negative. Possible causes of the small yield response were good starting yields, increased inter-palm competition for sunlight, and environmental constraints (particularly the 2015 El Niño event and waterlogging in Jambi).
On the basis of our findings on yield gaps, nutrient limitations and better practices, we discuss how Indonesian smallholders may be supported to achieve sustainable intensification at a larger scale, and we reflect on the broader implications of our findings for a future supply of truly sustainable palm oil.
