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Multi‐elevation ground penetrating radar carried by unmanned aerial vehicle: (a) sketch of configuration and (b) prototype system in operation above a water surface (of known reflectivity).
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The measurement of soil moisture is important for a wide range of applications, including ecosystem conservation and agricultural management. However, most traditional measurement methods, for example, time‐domain reflectometry (TDR), are unsuitable for mapping field scale variability. In this study, we propose a method that uses an unmanned aerial...
Citations
... However, they acknowledges the challenges of employing GPR in clayey soil, where electromagnetic waves rapidly decay [32]. Nonetheless, this challenge is surmountable, as Cheng et al. [33] demonstrated in their use of land-based GPR for mapping disturbed clayey layers in agricultural fields. ...
... Nevertheless, employing GPR in clay-rich soils, where electromagnetic waves dissipate rapidly, poses a considerable challenge [33,34]. Our investigation directly addresses this challenge by optimizing the GPR performance in clayey landscapes-an essential undertaking given the predominantly clayey soil composition at the Hulata construction site in northern Israel. ...
... Balancing the depth and resolution is an ongoing challenge, and it is essential to strike a harmonious equilibrium to obtain the most informative and high-quality data during the GPR survey. The vertical resolution (D Z ) and minimum size (A min ) of detectable objects can be calculated as follows [33,[43][44][45][46]: ...
This study delves into the fusion of ground-based and drone-based ground-penetrating radar (GPR) technologies in archaeological exploration. Set against the backdrop of the Hulata solar panel construction site in Israel, the research confronts daunting obstacles such as clayey soil, accurate detection of small objects, and the imperative of timely reporting crucial for construction management. The drone-based GPR, a testament to technological innovation, showcases remarkable adaptability to challenging terrains, dispelling doubts about electromagnetic wave decay in clayey soil. Methodologically, the study employs detailed orthophoto mapping and grid-type surveys. The correlation of the results significantly bolsters the reliability of archaeological discoveries, uncovering scattered artifacts buried approximately 1–1.5 m below the surface. Meticulous excavations validate the geophysical surveys, affirming the presence of structures constructed from boulders. The application at the Hulata site validates the adaptability of drone-based GPR in challenging terrains. It provides a swift, cost-effective, and minimally invasive alternative to traditional excavation techniques, thereby transforming the field of archaeology.
... Overcoming these challenges requires innovative techniques like ground-penetrating radar (GPR) to understand subsurface structures comprehensively. Beyond foundation engineering, in agriculture, traditional land GPR has already found applications in monitoring soil water content during irrigation in clay-disturbed soils [5] and mapping nonlinear boundaries between covering clayey soil and natural soil for agricultural purposes [6]. For example, Guo et al. [7] utilized landbased GPR to study the 3D sedimentary architecture of recent sediments in the Yungang braided river study area in Datong (China), emphasizing the need to characterize unstable, disturbed ground quantitatively. ...
... However, the challenges of using GPR in clayey soil, where electromagnetic waves rapidly decay, are acknowledged [23]. This difficulty is manageable, as Cheng et al. [6] demonstrated when using land GPR for mapping disturbed clayey layers in agricultural fields. ...
... Despite the challenges, Edemsky et al. [23] highlighted penetrating clayey soil with aerial GPR due to fast wave decay. Experiences in land GPR applications, such as [6] mapping of disturbed clayey layers in agricultural fields, suggest potential avenues for success. ...
The main goal of the research is to assess the effectiveness of aerial ground-penetrating radar (GPR) in delineating boundaries between disturbed clayey ground and rock formations along the old Wadi. The study also tackles technical challenges associated with drone-based GPR applications in urban open areas, considering geological heterogeneity, topographic variations, and environmental conditions. The potential of using drone-based GPR equipped with an unshielded dipole antenna as a transformative tool in geospatial analysis was demonstrated. The research encompasses academic insights and field borehole drilling experiments to validate the accuracy and reliability of drone-based GPR data in real-world scenarios. Anticipated contributions include advancements in understanding drone-based GPR technology for mapping disturbed soil boundaries in foundation engineering applications and other relevant areas and recommendations for optimizing its performance in challenging terrains.
... In inland water bathymetric studies (Bandini et al., 2023a), UAV-GPR has demonstrated a successful performance in detecting the water depth, similar to sonar, which restricts the use of underwater vegetation (Bandini et al., 2023b). Moreover, it has been used in soil moisture estimation and mapping (Wu et al., 2019;Wu and Lambot, 2022a;Cheng et al., 2023), subsurface surveys in mining (Saponaro et al., 2021), buried object detection (Garcia Fernandez et al., 2018), soil electrical conductivity mapping (Wu and Lambot, 2022b), glacier science (Engel et al., 2012;Ruols et al., 2022;Vergnano et al., 2022), and for obtaining snowpack parameters (Jenssen and Jacobsen, 2021). ...
The vadose zone serves as a crucial link for the mutual transformation of atmospheric, surface, ecological, and groundwater systems. Infiltration recharge in the vadose zone is a key step in the Earth's water cycle and plays an extremely important role in the sustainable development of groundwater resources, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. However, under the influence of extreme climatic conditions and intense human activity, the vadose zone has thickened in many places globally. Changes in the vadose zone structure lead to alterations in the infiltration process. Researchers have attempted to quantify this process using various methods. However, it has been found that conventional monitoring methods are inadequate to effectively describe the complex infiltration recharge process under the multifactorial influence of a deep vadose zone. Through an analysis of relevant literature published from 2000 to 2023 regarding deep vadose zone infiltration recharge, this paper identifies four contentious bottlenecks: (1) effective monitoring and simulation of deep vadose zone infiltration recharge, (2) modes of deep infiltration recharge, (3) issues related to the quantity and recharge period of precipitation and irrigation infiltration recharge, and (4) quantification of spatial variations and scale effects of infiltration recharge. After reviewing the latest developments in infiltration recharge monitoring and simulation and systematically analyzing the influencing factors and mechanisms of deep vadose zone infiltration recharge, this study provides answers to the aforementioned issues. The combined use of monitoring and numerical simulation methods, taking into account infiltration recharge scenarios and scales, can enhance the reliability and accuracy of the calculation results. Additionally, piston flow may not be the primary mode of water movement in the deep vadose zones. Understanding the modes and characteristics of water movement, as well as the differences in suction and desorption processes, is fundamental for accurately describing nonlinear infiltration recharge processes. Furthermore, the measured average vertical infiltration rates of the deep vadose zone vary widely from 0.14 to 500 mm/d globally. In the North China Plain, vertical infiltration recharge rates range from 133 to 300 mm/a. These significant differences are related to the research scale, external conditions, and internal soil structure within the vadose zone. Finally, a systematic analysis of the driving factors of nonlinear infiltration recharge in the deep vadose zone is a prerequisite for quantifying spatial variations and scale effects. Only by fully considering the interactions and contributions of various driving factors can the spatiotemporal variations in soil infiltration be effectively quantified. Therefore, our research team suggests that future studies on deep vadose zone infiltration recharge should focus on establishing a unified layout for large-scale, multi-point, synchronous, in situ, and long-term monitoring; constructing relationships between the vadose zone structure and hydraulic characteristics; and conducting comprehensive studies on the overall water cycle in the Earth's surface layers, with the deep vadose zone as the core. These will help build a research system for the spatiotemporal infiltration recharge of water in the deep vadose zone at multiple layers and scales, achieving the closest approximation to a realistic description of the deep vadose zone infiltration recharge.
