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This paper presents twelve new radiocarbon dates from copper mines at Monte Loreto in Liguria, northwest Italy, which indicate that extraction began around 3500 cal BC, making these the earliest copper mines to be discovered in Western Europe so far. The dates are placed in their regional context, with a discussion of results from Libiola and other...
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... mineshaft (Figure 3) situated on a fault was excavated in antiquity to 2m in depth, and its sides show notches cut as rough hand-and footholds for the ancient miners. Charcoal from the work floor from which this shaft was dug gave a date of 4720 + − 60 BP, which calibrating at two standard deviations to 3645-3355 cal BC is our earliest date at Monte Loreto (see Table 1). ...
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During rescue excavations at Site 1 in Kotowo in 1958, a ceramic tube was discovered in a feature of the Funnel Beaker culture. Currently, XRF analysis suggests that it is a ceramic tuyère associated with copper processing. The feature, radiocarbon dated to 3911–3714 BC (68.3% probability), most likely housed a metalworking workshop. The artefact f...
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... Metallurgy (metal smelting using ores from which metals are extracted) began independently in multiple locations in Asia, Europe and Africa between 8 and 6 ka (Höppner et al., 2005;Radivojević and Rehren, 2016;Holl, 2020; but see Roberts et al., 2009). The oldest metal mine, a copper mine, dates to~5400 BC in the Balkans (Radivojević and Rehren, 2016) and many others in Europe are known from 4,500-3650 BC (Höppner et al., 2005;Maggie and Pearce, 2005). The amount of copper used, estimated from artifacts, was considerable. ...
As a species, we have reached a tipping point for Earth derived from our unsustainable resource use. While conservation efforts occurred early in human civilization, it was not until 1980 that the full force of environmental destruction, including the Santa Barbara oil spill in the 1970s, culminated in the new discipline of conservation biology focused on the biosphere. Similarly, conservation paleobiology, named two decades later, brings the unique perspective of the fossil record to conservation efforts, uniting biosphere and geosphere scientists. To date, conservation history does not include paleontological or geological perspectives. Further, each discipline has a different benchmark—near time—for when Earth’s ecosystems were modified by humans. Accordingly, the history of conservation efforts leading up to conservation biology and conservation paleobiology was examined from a geological and ecological framework. To provide a benchmark for near time, the hominin record and their geo-environmental modifications were also examined and revealed that by the start of the Holocene, all continents except ice-covered Antarctica and Greenland had human-modified ecosystems. Therefore, near time is dispensable when the Holocene Epoch is universally understood and precisely defined as a time when H. sapiens dominated environments. Lastly, a conservation corps is urgently needed, following the long tradition of F.D. R.’s Civilian Conservation Corps of the 1930s and J.F. Kennedy’s Peace Corps of the 1960s, to promote a global network connecting all students and practitioners of conservation disciplines to focus on biotic resilience, recovery, and solutions for the world’s most pressing environmental problems.
... According to the theory of the diffusion of metallurgy (Strahm, 2005), we can distinguish three principal phases: the first step was the import of finished copper objects (axes) from the Balkans in the 5th and 4th millennium BC (Dolfini, 2013;van Willigen, 2017); in the second phase local mining and copper production started in Liguria and Tuscany in the middle of 4th millennium BC (Maggi and Pearce 2005;Artioli et al, 2016) and in the third step the exploitation of local copper ores and the production of objects began in the Eastern Alps during the 3rd millennium BC (Dal Ri et al 2005). ...
... According to the theory of the diffusion of metallurgy (Strahm, 2005), we can distinguish three principal phases: the first step was the import of finished copper objects (axes) from the Balkans in the 5th and 4th millennium BC (Dolfini, 2013;van Willigen, 2017); in the second phase local mining and copper production started in Liguria and Tuscany in the middle of 4th millennium BC (Maggi and Pearce 2005;Artioli et al, 2016) and in the third step the exploitation of local copper ores and the production of objects began in the Eastern Alps during the 3rd millennium BC (Dal Ri et al 2005). ...
The aim of this paper is to explore the integration of the Bell Beaker phenomenon in a local context, in order to examine the mechanisms underlying its introduction and discuss possible factors related to it. As a case study, the authors use the Upper Rhône valley in southwestern Switzerland and focus specifically on the renowned Sion ‘Petit-Chasseur’ necropolis. Prehistoric populations repeatedly came to this megalithic site during the Final Neolithic (2900–2450 cal. BC), the Bell Beaker period (2450–2200 cal. BC), and the Early Bronze Age (2200–1600 cal. BC), offering ideal conditions to address the issues stated above. This multidisciplinary research focuses on pottery manufacturing processes through the chaîne opératoire approach, reconstructing each step from the raw material selection all the way to finishing treatments and firing. The analyses, both macro- and microscopic, carried out on the Bell Beaker pottery, led to the identification of an exogenous pottery tradition and of local raw material procurement sources. These results point towards a mobility of Bell Beaker potters, who exploited local raw materials but applied their own know-how. Probably specialised, these craftsmen/women were thus one of the factors active in the diffusion of the Bell Beaker phenomenon.
... Problems with this chronology began to show from the 1990s. Several discoveries (e.g. the Iceman and the copper mines at Libiola and Monte Loreto; Barfield 1994;Maggi, Pearce 2005) suggested that metals first circulated south of the Alps in the 4 th millennium BC, with some authors pro-posing even earlier dates (Barfield 1996;Dolfini 2013b;Pearce 2007;Skeates 1993). In the last two decades, the widespread application of AMS precision dating has conclusively demonstrated that Rinaldone-style metalwork was cast and used in the west-central peninsula from the mid-4 th millennium BC (early Eneolithic), following an experimentation phase in the late 5 th and early 4 th millennia BC (Late/Final Neolithic; Artioli et alii 2020;Carboni 2020;Conti-Persiani-Petitti 1997;Dolfini 2010Dolfini , 2013aDolfini-Aranguren-Silvestrini 2011;Fedeli and Galiberti 2016). ...
The article discusses an original seriation and chronology for prehistoric Italian metalwork, c.4500-2100 BC, which these authors developed as part of the EU-funded TEMPI project, 2015-2017. The research is grounded in a critical reclassification of early copper-alloy axes, daggers and halberds; a reassessment of metal-rich burial assemblages from northern and peninsular Italy, organised into geographically and chronological coherent groupings; and an evaluation and Bayesian statistical modelling of radiocarbon dates from metal-rich burials, integrated by fresh AMS determinations and typological comparisons with selected non-Italian metalwork. Thus reassessed and modelled, the data have enabled these authors to suggest that early Italian metalwork could newly be organised into five discrete horizons charting the evolution of copper-alloy technology and object design over two and a half millennia. The research contributes to a 50-year-long debate that has engaged some of the foremost specialists in later Italian prehistory and provides solid ground on which future research on early Italian metallurgy can build.
... The Cu mineralization of the Northern Apennines are classified as Cyprus-type volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits [24] and they occur as (i) massive sulfide lenses in serpentinite breccia and (ii) stockwork-style mineralization hosted by serpentinite, gabbro, and pillow basalt. The exploitation of copper sulfide from the Northern Apennines ophiolites has been known since the Bronze Age [25], even though the mining activity peaked between 1850 and 1970 [26]. The Vigonzano mine ore geology consists of a stockwork mineralization hosted in a 100 m serpentinite block. ...
Abandoned mining wastes are both an environmental challenge and a possible secondary raw material source. The characterization and monitoring of these sites are often expensive and cumbersome because of the need of repeated field surveys. Remote sensing data are a cost-effective alternative that helps in producing multiscale maps of mining wastes. These maps can be used to investigate and monitor the spatial patterns of different elements within the mining wastes. In this work, Sentinel-2 images are combined with the geochemical samples in order to map the distribution of iron, copper, chromium, and cobalt. The target area was the Vigonzano mining wastes in Northern Apennines (Italy) where there are a small number of geochemical analyses but a large amount of satellite image data. We used the multivariate geostatistical estimation method (Co-Kriging) that exploit the meaningful spatial correlation between the elements of interest and band ratios (obtained from Sentinel-2 images). The concentration maps highlighted subareas for Cu and Cr with an estimated grade of about 0.3% and 0.2%, respectively. In addition, the critical element Co showed an enrichment in the south-east part of the mining wastes, in a similar pattern as Cr. Instead, the obtained maps show Ce, La, Rb, and Nb depletion compared to the surrounding agricultural areas. The concentration maps were intended as a prefeasibility study to determine enriched areas for further detailed investigation
... The study area was the abandoned Libiola copper mine, located about 8 km NE of Sestri Levante (Eastern Liguria, Italy). The Libiola mine was already exploited in the sixteenth century, but evidence of ancient mining dating back to the early Copper Age (second half of the fourth millennium BC) has been observed [21]. In the modern age, official mining activity started in 1864 and ended in 1962, basically because of decreasing copper value and the high cost of infrastructural maintenance and repair. ...
Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a common environmental problem in many sulphide mines worldwide, and it is widely accepted that the microbial community plays a major role in keeping the process of acid generation active. The aim of this work is to describe, for the first time, the microbial community thriving in goethite and jarosite Fe precipitates from the AMD of the Libiola mine. The observed association is dominated by Proteobacteria (>50%), followed by Bacteroidetes (22.75%), Actinobacteria (7.13%), Acidobacteria (5.79%), Firmicutes (2.56%), and Nitrospirae (1.88%). Primary producers seem to be limited to macroalgae, with chemiolithotrophic strains being almost absent. A phylogenetic analysis of bacterial sequences highlighted the presence of heterotrophic bacteria, including genera actively involved in the AMD Fe cycle and genera (such as Cytophaga and Flavobacterium) that are able to reduce cellulose. The Fe precipitates constitute a microaerobic and complex environment in which many ecological niches are present, as proved by the wide range of bacterial species observed. This study is the first attempt to quantitatively characterize the microbial community of the studied area and constitutes a starting point to learn more about the microorganisms thriving in the AMD of the Libiola mine, as well as their potential applications.
... Numerous works of environmental archaeology have focused on the rugged territory overlooking the sea on the northwestern Italian coast (Liguria). These contributions include geoarchaeological (Macphail et al. 1997), archaeobotanical (Arobba et al. 2018) and zooarchaeological (Rowley-Conwy 2000;Rowley-Conwy et al. 2020) investigations, as well as studies on archaeometallurgy (Maggi and Pearce 2005), ceramic petrography (Capelli et al. 2008), osteology (Marchi et al. 2006;Sparacello and Marchi 2008;Sparacello et al. 2016Sparacello et al. , 2017Dori et al. 2020;Orellana-González et al. 2020;Varalli et al. 2020) and stable isotope analyses of human remains (Pettitt et al. 2003;Goude et al. 2011Goude et al. , 2020Varalli et al. 2015). ...
Tana del Barletta is an upland cave used from the Late Neolithic to the Middle Bronze Age, located in the vicinity of the coast in Liguria (NW Italy). The excavation revealed the presence of a faunal assemblage dominated by caprine and cattle remains. In order to gain new data on late prehistoric farming strategies (e.g. seasonal mobility, coastal grazing, animal diet), intra-tooth series of stable oxygen and carbon isotopes have been obtained from cattle and sheep/goat tooth enamel, along with intra-tooth series of nitrogen and carbon isotopes from cattle dentine collagen. Due to the prevalence of maxillary teeth, a modern calf has also been analysed to assess intra-individual isotopic differences between the maxillary and mandibular dentition. Modern data on oxygen isotope values of meteoric water from different altitudes around the area of the site were used as a reference for interpretation. The results indicate that the water ingested by the herd was mostly characterised by particularly low δ ¹⁸ O values, highlighting the importance of the uplands for the late prehistoric farmers of the region. However, the input of water sourced from lower elevations, especially during the winter months, cannot be dismissed. In addition, the nitrogen isotopic composition of cattle collagen rules out the ingestion of salt-tolerant vegetation or seaweed, suggesting that grazing did not occur directly on the coastal plain.
... In this study we have targeted the Cyprus type Fe-Cu-Zn deposits of the Northern Apennines, Italy, which occur in an ophiolitic series accumulated in the western limb of the Jurassic Neotethyan Ocean. These deposits have been known since the Bronze Age [30] and detailed mineralogical, petrographic and geochemical studies completed on them since the 1950s [31][32][33][34][35][36][37] provide a solid basis for their interpretation as Cyprus type VMS deposits. However, recent studies have mainly addressed the mineral chemical, geochemical and geotectonic aspects of ore deposit formation [33][34][35][36][37] and only a few have focused on the reconstruction of hydrothermal processes by fluid inclusion studies [38]. ...
... Several Fe-Cu-Zn sulfide deposits are known in the non-metamorphosed ophiolitic units [34,37] (Figure 1). Although copper mining was already ongoing during the Bronze Age in Eastern Liguria [30], systematic exploitation only started during the Industrial Era. Mining between 1850 and 1910 produced more than 1.5 Mt of ore with an average grade of 2-7% Cu [43]. ...
Quartz from the stockwork zone of various Cyprus type volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits (Boccassuolo, Reppia, Campegli, Bargone and Vigonzano) from the unmetamorphosed, Jurassic Northern Apennine ophiolites was studied in order to provide details on the submarine hydrothermal conditions and the characteristics for ore formation. Our detailed SEM-CL investigation of quartz contributed to a robust characterization and interpretation of primary fluid inclusions and microthermometry data. SEM-CL imaging was also useful for reconstructing the consecutive steps of quartz precipitation. The determination of trace element contents according to growth zon-ing in quartz by LA-ICP-MS constrained the compositional variations of parent fluids during the hydrothermal activity. A continuously cooling fluid regime characterized each studied volcano-genic massive sulfide (VMS) occurrence although the minimum formation temperatures were different (Bargone: 110-270 °C; Boccassuolo: 60-360 °C; Campegli: 110-225 °C; Reppia: 50-205 °C; Vigonzano: 260-330 °C), the range of temperature most probably depends on the original position of sampling in relation to the centers of the hydrothermal systems. Compositional changes are reflected by variations in the methane content (0.13-0.33 mol/kg) and salinity (2.6-9.3 NaCl equiv. wt. %) in the fluid inclusions of quartz and calcite as well as a changeable Al content (11-1526 ppm) in quartz. This study demonstrates that the combined use of SEM-CL imaging and LA-ICP-MS analyses , coupled with fluid inclusion microthermometry, can constrain the different fluid conditions of ore forming and the barren stages of evolving submarine hydrothermal systems.
... From then until ~2500 BCE there is a rapid increase in the incidence of copper finds. Shortly after 4000 BCE, we see the first radiocarbon dates for copper mines, in northern Italy (Maggi and Pearce 2005). ...
... However, there are two significant differences. First, in northern Italy, local copper mining and smelting appear in the early 4 th millennium (Maggi and Pearce 2005), most probably as a result of earlier Balkan-Carpathian connections (Dolfini 2013), though there is little sign of its impact on metal deposition. The situation changes after 3000 BCE, when our data show a big increase in radiocarbon-dated copper mining activity, including its expansion to southern France, as well as a significant rise in the deposition of copper items (Fig 4; cf. ...
The authors of this article consider the relationship in European prehistory between the procurement of high-quality stones (for axeheads, daggers, and other tools) on the one hand, and the early mining, crafting, and deposition of copper on the other. The data consist of radiocarbon dates for the exploitation of stone quarries, flint mines, and copper mines, and of information regarding the frequency through time of jade axeheads and copper artefacts. By adopting a broad perspective, spanning much of central-western Europe from 5500 to 2000 bc , they identify a general pattern in which the circulation of the first copper artefacts was associated with a decline in specialized stone quarrying. The latter re-emerged in certain regions when copper use decreased, before declining more permanently in the Bell Beaker phase, once copper became more generally available. Regional variations reflect the degrees of connectivity among overlapping copper exchange networks. The patterns revealed are in keeping with previous understandings, refine them through quantification and demonstrate their cyclical nature, with additional reference to likely local demographic trajectories.
... Once a vein was exhausted, miners backfilled the gallery, perhaps urged by cultural preoccupations. Radiocarbon dating has pinpointed the inception of ore mining at both Libiola and Monte Loreto to the mid-fourth millennium BC (Maggi and Pearce, 2005;Pearce, 2007, pp. 62-70); this dovetails with the metallurgical surge discussed above. ...
The Late Neolithic and Copper Age were a time of change in most of Europe. Technological innovations including animal traction, the wheel, and plow agriculture transformed the prehistoric economy. The discovery of copper metallurgy expanded the spectrum of socially significant materials and realigned exchange networks away from Neolithic “greenstone,” obsidian, and Spondylus shells. New funerary practices also emerged, signifying the growing importance of lineage ancestors, as well as new ideas of personal identity. These phenomena have long attracted researchers’ attention in continental Europe and the British Isles, but comparatively little has been done in the Italian peninsula. Building on recent discoveries and interdisciplinary research on settlement patterns, the subsistence economy, the exchange of socially valuable materials, the emergence of metallurgy, funerary practices, and notions of the body, I critically appraise current models of the Neolithic-Bronze Age transition in light of the Italian regional evidence, focusing on central Italy. In contrast to prior interpretations of this period as the cradle of Bronze Age social inequality and the prestige goods economy, I argue that, at this juncture, prehistoric society reconfigured burial practices into powerful new media for cultural communication and employed new materials and objects as novel identity markers. Stratified political elites may not be among the new identities that emerged at this time in the social landscape of prehistoric Italy.
