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Medulla classification system used in our hair key to identify wild and domestic ungulates from southern Europe.
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We analysed macro- and microscopic features of dorsal guard hairs in 105 specimens of 10 wild and five domestic ungulates from southern Europe to work out a dichotomous key with a photographic reference system of diagnostic hair features. We integrated and extended the available data on hair morphology of wild ungulates and provide a first comparat...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... types of hair profile: undulated and straight. The hair tip is described as split or not split. Hair microstructure is composed of three layers of kera- tin: medulla, cortex and cuticle, from the innermost to the outermost. The medulla is composed of loosely packed cells with air spaces in the cells them- selves or between them. It is described (Fig. 1) by composition (unicellular irregular and multicellular), structure (amorphous, uniseriate, multiseriate, vacuolated, filled lattice and partially filled lattice), pattern (continuous and fragmental) and margin form (irregu- lar, straight and scalloped). The cor- tex, composed of cells coalesced into a hyaline mass, does not exhibit ...
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... (1981b) separated deer from wild bovids on the basis of cross-sections. We distinguished these taxa by the shape of the basal part of the hair (see Appendix I, App. Figs. 10 and 11), without hair cross-sectioning, which is a complicated and time consuming step of the laboratory ...
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... fallow deer hairs are recog- nisable. 'V' shaped incisions in the cuticular pattern of the upper shaft have been reported as a diagnostic fea- ture to distinguish roe deer from other deer (Lomuller 1924, Keller 1981b, Teerink 1991. We frequently observed these 'V' shaped incisions in almost all wild and domes- tic ungulates (see Appendix I, App. Fig. 1A), so they should not be considered a reliable character for hair ...
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... cells polygonal, practically filling the entire width of the hair so that the cortex is very narrow or not visible (filled structure) (Fig. 3) Medullary cells polygonal or elongated, not filling the entire width of the hair so that the cortex is clearly visible (partially filled structure) (Fig. 4) Basal part of the hair wine-glass shaped (Fig. 10) Basal part of the hair slightly tapered (Fig. 11) Cuticular scale pattern irregular wave and scale margins smooth throughout the hair length (Fig. 12) ...
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... width of the hair so that the cortex is very narrow or not visible (filled structure) (Fig. 3) Medullary cells polygonal or elongated, not filling the entire width of the hair so that the cortex is clearly visible (partially filled structure) (Fig. 4) Basal part of the hair wine-glass shaped (Fig. 10) Basal part of the hair slightly tapered (Fig. 11) Cuticular scale pattern irregular wave and scale margins smooth throughout the hair length (Fig. 12) ...
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... scale pattern generally 'Ω'-shaped in some tracts of the upper shaft of the hair (Fig. 18) (Fig. 6) (Fig. 6); cuticular scale pattern 'Ω'-shaped in some tracts of the upper shaft of the hair (Fig. 19) (Fig. 20) (Fig. 21) (Fig. 22) pendix I, App. Fig. 24) in sheep and goats (90.5 and 100%, respectively, N = 53). It is not common to find hairs with roots in the scats; when it happens, the root shape can help in hair ...
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... scale pattern generally 'Ω'-shaped in some tracts of the upper shaft of the hair (Fig. 18) (Fig. 6) (Fig. 6); cuticular scale pattern 'Ω'-shaped in some tracts of the upper shaft of the hair (Fig. 19) (Fig. 20) (Fig. 21) (Fig. 22) pendix I, App. Fig. 24) in sheep and goats (90.5 and 100%, respectively, N = 53). It is not common to find hairs with roots in the scats; when it happens, the root shape can help in hair identification of goats and horses (see point 13 of the key in Table ...
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... Analyse several tufts of hairs of the same individual because of the considerable variety of hair types encountered in different body regions and even within the same body region (see Appendix I, Fig. 1). None- theless no general statement can be made on the num- ber of hairs that constitute an adequate sample for iden- tification (Mayer 1952, Day 1966, Meyer et al. ...
Citations
... Soaked scats were washed through a 0.5 mm-mesh sieve and then dried. The species eaten by wolves were identified based on hair, bones, teeth, and hooves found in scats using hair or osteological keys (Debrot et al. 1982, Pucek 1984, Teerink 1991, De Marinis and Asprea 2006 and reference material collected during earlier studies on the wolf foraging ecology (Nowak et al. 2005, 2021. ...
We assessed changes in the population size, density, and diet composition of wolves inhabiting the Romincka Forest (RF), an area of 480 km 2 situated along the state border between Poland, Russian Federation (Kaliningrad), and Lithuania. We compared the results of our research in 2020-2021 with data from other projects conducted since 1999. We found that both packs living in RF had transboundary territories. The number of packs was stable over 21 years; the average pack size almost doubled (from 4-4.5 to 7.5-8 wolves per pack); the total wolf numbers increased 1.8 times, reaching 15-16 wolves; and the density increased 1.5 times up to 3.1-3.3 wolves/100 km 2 in winter 2020/2021. Our analyses of 165 scats revealed that beavers Castor fiber made up 45.6% of food biomass in the wolf diet in 2020, which was 3.4 times more than in 1999-2004 (n = 84 scats,13.4%). Wild ungulates constituted 44.8% of the wolf food biomass in 2020, 1.6 times less than before (71.1%). In our study, among wild ungulates, wolves primarily consumed roe deer Capreolus capreolus (22.6% of food biomass), then wild boars Sus scrofa (13.7%), and red deer Cervus elaphus (5.0%), while moose Alces alces was eaten rarely (0.4%). We also recorded domestic dogs (4.9% of food biomass) and cattle (3.1%). The food niche breadth was wider (B = 2.31) than in the earlier period (B = 1.84), and the Pianka index showed moderate similarity in food composition between both periods (α = 0.816). In November 2022, due to the migration crisis, a 199 km impermeable fence along the state border with Kaliningrad was erected, which blocked access to 48% of the RF area that was regularly used by the resident wolf packs. This may cause wolf numbers to decrease and isolation from the central part of the Baltic wolf population to which they belong, according to our DNA analyses.
... Scats were analyzed to identify the consumed items from undigested remains: hairs, bones, hoofs, and claws (medium-and large-sized mammals); hairs and mandibles (small mammals); and seeds and leaves (fruits and plants). Remains were identified by comparison to a private reference collection (hairs, mandibles, and seeds collected in the field from carcasses or plants) and an atlas [48][49][50]. We observed the hairs with an optical microscope (Leica DM750; Leica Microsystems, Wetzlar, Germany) to identify the consumed species from the characteristics of cortical scales, medulla, and roots. ...
The comprehension of the factors that have influenced the recent changes in wolf (Canis lupus) range and diet that have occurred in our study area, characterized by a highly heterogeneous landscape, can shed light on their current process of expansion toward the plain. Wolf presence was monitored using a standardized protocol from 2007 to 2022 by carrying out eight monitoring sessions organized in seasonal surveys, during which, we collected wolf presence data. To model wolf range dynamics, we used dynamic occupancy models considering land cover types and wild ungulate abundances as covariates. Moreover, we studied the wolf diet through scat analysis, identifying the consumed items from undigested remains. Wolf occupancy in the study area progressed from mountains to lower hills gradually; the observed range dynamics were driven by prey abundance and human presence: in particular, the probability of colonization increased with roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) abundance, whereas the probability of extinction increased with urban areas. The wolf diet showed a gradual shift from the prevalent consumption of wild boar (2007–2008 and 2011–2012) to the prevalent consumption of roe deer (continuously increasing from 2015 onward). Our results might be related to a specific adaptation of the predator to the local ecology of the most consumed species: the roe deer.
... For cuticle analysis, we applied the gelatin casting method, leaving gelatin imprints of the hair scales for microscopic examination. The classification of cuticle and medulla patterns was based on established criteria [20,21]. Briefly, 20% pig native gelatin (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) was prepared in boiling water. ...
... RD featured yellow-brown coats, while WD had grayish coats. Distinct differences in hair cuticles, including scale position, scale margin structure, margin distance, and pattern, were observed between RD and WD [21]. WD had thicker and more irregular hair patterns, whereas RD displayed uniform scale margins ( Figure 1A,B). ...
The Korean water deer (WD), a predominant wildlife species in South Korea, is listed as vulnerable by the IUCN Red List. Despite belonging to the same family, Cervidae, WD show significantly fewer adult ixodid tick infestations compared to roe deer (RD). Ticks, which cannot fly, engage in questing behavior in natural environments to latch onto hosts. They detect signals like body temperature and host skin chemicals to navigate through the hair coat to the preferred epidermis. In light of this, we performed an extensive comparative study of the skin tissue and hair characteristics of both deer species, focusing on elements contributing to the reduced tick bite incidence in WD. Remarkably, WD exhibited more prominent blood vessels, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands, which are crucial for skin barrier functions (p < 0.005). Moreover, WD had irregular scale patterns on their hair cuticles and possessed hair that was significantly stiffer and 2.83 times thicker than that of RD (p < 0.001). These characteristics potentially impede ticks from reaching the epidermis hair in WD and RD in the context of tick bite prevention. Further investigations in this area could enhance our understanding of tick–host dynamics and contribute to developing preventive measures against tick-borne diseases in other deer species.
... For apples and wild pears, the volume of seeds was stated as 0.5 ml per seed. All macroscopically undetermined seeds and hairs were identified using an optical microscope and dichotomous identification keys (Hausman 1920;De Marinis and Agnelli 1993;Teerink 2003;De Marinis and Asprea 2006;Felix et al. 2014;Cornally et al. 2016). Examination of the hair medulla was done using synthetic resin, and for the hair cuticle, a clear nail polish was used as a medium for imprinting the outermost structure of the hair shaft. ...
Proper conservation of large carnivores always entails a robust understanding of their ecology. The
diet is one of the fundamental elements that needs to be well assessed before proposing sound management
measures. The brown bear population in Prespa is shared among three countries – Albania, Greece and
North Macedonia – that considerably vary in habitat complexity and the human practices taking place.
Therefore, a comprehensive evaluation of the bear’s dietary habits is essential to minimize potential
human-bear conflicts. To that aim, a total of 553 samples were collected from 22 different habitats in all
three countries. The results indicate that the diet of bears greatly depends on fruiting plants, with cherry
plums (Prunus cerasifera) present in nearly half of the samples. The seasonal availability of fruits and plants
also plays a crucial role, where grasses and early bloomers, like wild cherries, are more dominant in spring,
cherry plums in summer, while apples and hardy masts, like acorns, predominate in autumn. In addition,
results show that predation and scavenging play an insignificant role in the diet of this subpopulation of
bears, with mammal remains detected in 4.7% of the samples, and only 1.45% of which belong to livestock,
rendering the bear a less likely threat to livestock farming in the area. One cannot exclude the potential
threat bears pose to agricultural activities, although its extent is still unknown. Thus, future conservation
and management plans in Prespa should consider the dietary habits and habitat preferences of the brown
bear.
... We noted the occurrence of any material besides hair, such as bones, feathers, plants, mineral matter, or garbage. In the second step, we prepared slides for microscopic evaluation of hair structure following standard procedures (Teerink 1991;De Marinis and Asprea 2006). Hair was identified through both macroscopic evaluation and microscopic analyses of the medulla, cortex, and cuticle characteristics, by comparison with reference materials of southern European wild and domestic ungulates and wild Iberian mammals (De Marinis and Asprea 2006; Valente et al. 2015). ...
Livestock depredation is a common cause of human-carnivore conflicts. In Portugal, free-ranging dogs are increasingly abundant and overlap endangered Iberian wolf territories, with reports of livestock depredation. However, the lack of awareness about dogs’ possible role as predators leads to bias against wolves in cases of damages. Our goal was to assess and compare wolf and free-ranging dog’s diet composition at southern wolf range in Portugal, to offer insights on dogs’ predatory role on livestock and its implications for the conservation of an endangered wolf subpopulation. We assessed diet composition from 107 to 95 genetically confirmed wolf and dog scats, respectively, and complemented the analysis with data from 40 attacks on livestock with successful genetic predator assignment. Scat analysis highlighted goats as the most consumed dog prey in all analysed regions, with lagomorphs, small mammals, and wild boars as second most consumed in each region, respectively. Wolves mainly relied on goats and wild boars in the west, whereas in the central region they mostly fed on birds. The dietary overlap between both canids was very high (Pianka’s index O = 0.93), showing potential for competition. Additionally, we found that dogs were the sole predators detected in most attacks (62%). Our findings highlight dogs’ role as predators of livestock, and possibly also wild species, posing a further challenge to wolf conservation. Alongside adequate husbandry practices, we emphasise the need for a stronger enforcement of the legislation on dog ownership and an effective management of the stray population to reduce human-wolf conflict.
... Among the two subdivisions of guard hair, namely the hair shield and the hair shaft, we selected the hair shaft, which is closer to the epidermis. The classification system for cuticle and medulla was selected from previous study [16]. ...
... Throughout the course of this research, relevant studies were closely examined. However, there was a lack of comparative analysis of the skin, and research on animal fur was primarily focused on forensic and species identification studies [15][16][17]. ...
The Korean water deer (WD), the dominant wildlife species in South Korea, is classified as vul-nerable on the IUCN Red List. Beside their several unique characteristics, they have a lower in-cidence of tick bites compared to other Cervidae species, particularly roe deer (RD). In natural environments, ticks exhibit questing behavior by waiting on grasses to climb onto host's hair coat. They use sensory organs to detect signals such as body temperature and chemicals from the host's skin, then move to preferred feeding location. Therefore, we conducted a comparative analysis of the skin tissue and hair features of both species to compare the factors leading to lower incidence of tick bites in WD. Notably, WD had significantly larger blood vessels, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands which maintain the barrier functions of the skin (p≤0.004), irregular scale surfaces in hair cuticles, and stiff and 2.83-times thicker primary hair diameter (p<0.001). Each parameters made the ticks difficult to move onto the epidermis of WD. To our knowledge, this is the first report which is focused on the comparative analysis for skin and hair feature in WD and RD. We suggest that these differences may attribute to evade tick bites in WD.
... Wolf scats were collected monthly (April 2016-March 2021) along itineraries for a total of up to c. 120 km/month, and opportunistically during usual activities of territory patrolling by Park Wardens. Overall, 2201 scats were collected and used for analyses [50,51] through (i) a macroscopic comparison of hairs with a reference collection of hairs of potential wolf prey, using parameters such as color, shape, length, and thickness, and (ii) microscopic analyses of cuticle, medulla, and cortex, under an optical microscope (100-400×), through which hair features were compared with reference atlases, identification keys and reference collection of hair of local prey [22,90]. For the purposes of this work, wolf prey was categorised as "large herbivores" (i.e., wild boar, fallow deer, roe deer, or livestock), "red fox", "badger", "Martes spp. ...
Background
There is need of information on ecological interactions that keystone species such as apex predators establish in ecosystems recently recolonised. Interactions among carnivore species have the potential to influence community-level processes, with consequences for ecosystem dynamics. Although avoidance of apex predators by smaller carnivores has been reported, there is increasing evidence that the potential for competitive-to-facilitative interactions is context-dependent. In a protected area recently recolonised by the wolf Canis lupus and hosting abundant wild prey (3 ungulate species, 20–30 individuals/km2, together), we used 5-year food habit analyses and 3-year camera trapping to (i) investigate the role of mesocarnivores (4 species) in the wolf diet; (ii) test for temporal, spatial, and fine-scale spatiotemporal association between mesocarnivores and the wolf.
Results
Wolf diet was dominated by large herbivores (86% occurrences, N = 2201 scats), with mesocarnivores occurring in 2% scats. We collected 12,808 carnivore detections over > 19,000 camera trapping days. We found substantial (i.e., generally ≥ 0.75, 0–1 scale) temporal overlap between mesocarnivores—in particular red fox—and the wolf, with no support for negative temporal or spatial associations between mesocarnivore and wolf detection rates. All the species were nocturnal/crepuscular and results suggested a minor role of human activity in modifying interspecific spatiotemporal partitioning.
Conclusions
Results suggest that the local great availability of large prey to wolves limited negative interactions towards smaller carnivores, thus reducing the potential for spatiotemporal avoidance. Our study emphasises that avoidance patterns leading to substantial spatiotemporal partitioning are not ubiquitous in carnivore guilds.
... Mammalian hair identification manuals describe physical hair attributes of species such as color, cuticular scale shape, and texture, and for some species, provide guidance for categorizing juveniles from adults (Adorjan and Kolenosky 1969;De Marinis and Asprea 2006;Chenaux-Ibrahim 2015). Summer adult hairs have imbricate (i.e., flattened and overlapping) scale patterning, whereas juvenile hair scales are imbricate with crenate (i.e., rounded or scalloped) edges in the middle of the hair and closer to the cuticle (Adorjan and Kolenosky 1969). ...
... As the period when a neonate is most vulnerable to predation depends on when they are born, the months where these results will be most applicable to scat sampling will vary based on peak birthing season in a given study area. Hair studies are unlikely to be able to differentiate juvenile hairs from adult hairs after individuals experience their first molt at approximately 5 months of age (De Marinis and Asprea 2006;Lodberg-Holm et al. 2021). for example, peak birthing in Texas occurs in June with final births in mid-July (Hirth 1985;Stephenson et al. 2008), whereas in more northern areas peak births occur a month earlier in May (Huegel et al. 1985;Vreeland et al. 2004;Burroughs et al. 2006). ...
Ungulates are a main component in carnivore diets but determining consumption of juveniles is difficult. Past studies have used size of prey remains such as small hooves or bones to classify scat samples as containing content attributable to juveniles. Hair thickness and color may also be used, but seasonality could influence the coat of an adult by developing thinner hairs in summer that more closely resemble those from juveniles. Given this uncertainty, we aimed to quantitatively determine a hair diameter threshold to categorize the age-class of ungulate hair in scats. We obtained hair samples from captive (n = 133) and vehicle-killed (n = 5) white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) from Georgia and Virginia. We used microphotography image analysis to measure the width of hairs and their cuticular casts. We used a linear model to assess differences among body locations, age-classes, and locations along the hair strand. We also analyzed the change in hair width of juveniles as they aged. Hair diameter of adults, but not juveniles, differed significantly depending on body location, yet adult hairs were always significantly wider than those from juveniles. Juvenile hairs significantly increased in width after mid-September, when they molt into adult coats in our study area. We identified 104.2 µm measured at either 1/8 or 1/4 distance from the follicle as a threshold width to distinguish adult from juvenile hairs, with 95.3% accuracy. Our findings indicate that juvenile white-tailed deer can be distinguished from adults based on the width of hairs found in carnivore scats up until juveniles are 5 months old. More broadly, our results demonstrate that hair width may be used to classify juvenile versus adult prey remains in carnivore diet studies in other predator–prey systems.
... The free edge of the cells revealed differences among domestic animals, resulting in different scaling patterns in each species. [27] The cortex is a noncellular, keratin-based structure found deep within the cuticle. The medulla, which was made up of pigments, was the innermost portion of the hair. ...
... Similar to another study, the root of the horse hair was bulb-like conical expansion, and the cuticle was less prominent. [27] In the rat, the pigment of the hair was white. The shaft profile was straight. ...
Hair is a feature that is only found in mammals. In all species, it is an epidermal protrusion composed of an outer cuticle, middle cortex, and inner medulla. Hair's primary purpose in mammals is to aid with thermoregulation. Every domestic animal species has a distinct hair pattern that can be used in forensic investigations. The aim of the present study is to observe the different animal hairs under stereomicroscope for forensic analysis. Hair is a unique characteristic seen only in mammals. It is an epidermal protrusion composed of an outer cuticle, middle cortex, and inner medulla in all species. The primary function of hair in animals is to aid with thermoregulation. Every domestic animal species has a specific hair pattern that forensic investigators can employ. The shaft profile was straight in all the animal hairs. In the proximal end, the root was absent because the hair was cut from the respective animals. Cuticles were absent in all the hair strands. The surface texture was smooth in dog hair, rough and spiculated in cat hair, and coarse in horse and rat hair. Microscopic examination of hairs reveals morphological distinctions that allow animal hairs from different species to be distinguished. In forensic investigations, microscopic examinations of various animal hairs are useful.
... Prey species were identified using hair identification keys (Debrot et al. 1982, Pucek 1984, Teerink 1991, De Marinis & Asprea 2006) and compared with reference material. The composition of food was expressed as: 1) the percentage of occurrence -the percentage of scats containing different prey species relative to the total number of scats, and 2) the percentage of biomass -the percentage of biomass of a particular food item relative to the total biomass consumed by wolves. ...
The diet composition and prey selection of grey wolves (Canis lupus) inhabiting the Roztocze and Solska Forest (south-east Poland) was studied based on an analysis of scats collected in 2001-2002 (n = 84)
and 2017-2020 (n = 302). In both periods, wolves preyed mainly on wild ungulates (96.5-96.7% of consumed biomass). Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) was the most critical wolf prey accounting for 57.8% of consumed biomass in 2001-2002 and 49.2% and 2017-2020, but wolves positively select only wild boar (Jacob’s selectivity
index D = 0.213 in 2001-2002 and 0.710 in 2017-2020) and fallow deer (D = 0.588 only in 2017-2020). The largest species – moose Alces alces and red deer Cervus elaphus – were consumed less than expected from their share in the ungulate community. Predation on medium-sized wild mammals and domestic animals was low,
0.8-2.2% and 1.1-2.7% of the biomass consumed, respectively. The breadth of the wolf diet was very narrow and identical in both study periods (B = 1.07), while the similarity of diet composition was high (α = 0.999). This study indicated the stability of the wolf diet over two decades and the importance of wild boar as a food source for this carnivore.
