Fig 7 - uploaded by Rui Diogo
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Medial view of the left lower jaw of Cranoglanis bouderius. A: Adductor mandibulae complex, except A1-ost, completely exposed. B: A3-1 and A3-2 removed. C: A and A2 removed. c-Meck-as, c-Meck-ho, ascending and horizontal portions of cartilago Meckeli; l-an-iop, ligamentum angulointeroperculare; l-pri, ligamentum primordium; m-A2, m-A3-d, m-A3-v, m-A3-1, m-A3-2, m-A, sections of the musculus adductor mandibulae; o-ang-art, os anguloarticulare; o-com, os coronomeckelium; o-den, os dentale.
Source publication
The cephalic and pectoral girdle structures of the Chinese catfish Cranoglanis bouderius are described and compared with those of other catfishes as the foundation for an analysis on the Cranoglanididae autapomorphies and also for a discussion on the phylogenetic relationships between the cranoglanidids and the other catfishes. Our observations and...
Contexts in source publication
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... angulo-articulare. This bone (Figs. 1, 2, 7, 8), together with the dentary, coronomeckelian, and Meckel's cartilage, constitute the mandible (Fig. 7C). Its anterodorsal surface, together with the pos- terodorsal surface of the dentary, form a prominent dorsal process (processus coronoideus), which is linked to the maxillary by means of a massive, long ligament (Figs. 1, 2, 7A: li.pri). Posterodorsally, the anguloarticular has an articulatory surface for the quadrate. ...
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... of the dentary, form a prominent dorsal process (processus coronoideus), which is linked to the maxillary by means of a massive, long ligament (Figs. 1, 2, 7A: li.pri). Posterodorsally, the anguloarticular has an articulatory surface for the quadrate. Posteroventrally, it presents a well- developed, posteriorly directed posteromedial pro- cess (Fig. 7C), which situates medially to the ante- rior portion of the angulointeropercular ligament (1-an-iop) and thus, is not visible in a lateral view of the cranium (see Figs. 1, ...
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... dentale. The dentaries (Figs. 1, 2, 7, 8) are firmly connected, near to their symphysis, to the supporting parts of the broad, somewhat circular cartilages ( Fig. 9) associated with the mandibular barbels by means of a large number of short and thin fibers. Anterodorsally, each dentary bears numerous slightly curved teeth (Fig. ...
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... coronomeckelium. This is a small bone lodged in the medial surface of the mandible. Pos- terodorsally it bears a crest for attachment of the adductor mandibulae A3-d (Fig. ...
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... sphenotic, and the pterotic (Fig. 1). Anteriorly, it Fig. 4. Right, lateral view of the suspensorium and its attache- ment on the neurocranium in Cranoglanis bouderius. af-ang, articulatory facet for anguloar- ticulare; af-op, articulatory facet for operculare; c-apal-a, cartilago attaches tendinously on the medial crest of the an- guloarticular (Fig. 7B). The adductor mandibulae A3 is divided in a dorsal and a ventral part. The dorsal one (A3-d) originates on the hyomandibula and metapterygoid (Fig. 2), and inserts tendinously on the coronomeckelian bone (Fig. 7C). The ventral one (A3-v) originates, by means of a small tendon, on the quadrate (Fig. 2) and inserts on the medial surface ...
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... af-op, articulatory facet for operculare; c-apal-a, cartilago attaches tendinously on the medial crest of the an- guloarticular (Fig. 7B). The adductor mandibulae A3 is divided in a dorsal and a ventral part. The dorsal one (A3-d) originates on the hyomandibula and metapterygoid (Fig. 2), and inserts tendinously on the coronomeckelian bone (Fig. 7C). The ventral one (A3-v) originates, by means of a small tendon, on the quadrate (Fig. 2) and inserts on the medial surface of the anguloarticular (Fig. 7C). The deeper bundle of the adductor mandibulae, the A3, is pos- terodorsally divided (Figs. 2, 7) in a posterior, smaller bundle (A3-1) and in an anterior, larger one (A3-2). These ...
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... mandibulae A3 is divided in a dorsal and a ventral part. The dorsal one (A3-d) originates on the hyomandibula and metapterygoid (Fig. 2), and inserts tendinously on the coronomeckelian bone (Fig. 7C). The ventral one (A3-v) originates, by means of a small tendon, on the quadrate (Fig. 2) and inserts on the medial surface of the anguloarticular (Fig. 7C). The deeper bundle of the adductor mandibulae, the A3, is pos- terodorsally divided (Figs. 2, 7) in a posterior, smaller bundle (A3-1) and in an anterior, larger one (A3-2). These two bundles are, however, anteroven- trally associated in a single, massive tendon (Fig. 7A), the anterodorsal and the anteroventral portion of which are ...
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... quadrate (Fig. 2) and inserts on the medial surface of the anguloarticular (Fig. 7C). The deeper bundle of the adductor mandibulae, the A3, is pos- terodorsally divided (Figs. 2, 7) in a posterior, smaller bundle (A3-1) and in an anterior, larger one (A3-2). These two bundles are, however, anteroven- trally associated in a single, massive tendon (Fig. 7A), the anterodorsal and the anteroventral portion of which are associated with the posterior portion of the primordial ligament and with the medial surface of the anguloarticular, respectively (Fig. 7A). Lastly, the A, which is well-developed, attaches anteroven- trally on the medial surface of both the dentary and the anguloarticular ...
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... bundle (A3-1) and in an anterior, larger one (A3-2). These two bundles are, however, anteroven- trally associated in a single, massive tendon (Fig. 7A), the anterodorsal and the anteroventral portion of which are associated with the posterior portion of the primordial ligament and with the medial surface of the anguloarticular, respectively (Fig. 7A). Lastly, the A, which is well-developed, attaches anteroven- trally on the medial surface of both the dentary and the anguloarticular and posterodorsally on the ten- don of the adductor mandibulae A2 (Fig. ...
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... are associated with the posterior portion of the primordial ligament and with the medial surface of the anguloarticular, respectively (Fig. 7A). Lastly, the A, which is well-developed, attaches anteroven- trally on the medial surface of both the dentary and the anguloarticular and posterodorsally on the ten- don of the adductor mandibulae A2 (Fig. ...
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... A3) (see . However, the configuration found in cranoglanidids is unique since in these fishes, contrary to the bagrids and pimelodids cited above, the A3 is dor- sally divided into two bundles, and also since in cranoglanidids the tendon of the A3 is associated with the posterior portion, and not with the fore end, of the primordial ligament (see Fig. ...
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... studied in detail (McMurrich, 1884;Takahasi, 1925;Munshi, 1960;Singh and Munshi, 1968;Taverne and Aloulou-Triki, 1974;Winterbottom, 1974;Ghiot et al., 1984;Diogo et al., 1999Diogo and Chardon, 2000a,b) the adductor mandibu- lae A, if present, is a small, anteroposteriorly ori- ented bundle lodged in the medial surface of the mandible (see, e.g., fig. 7B). However, in Cranoglanis bouderius, as well as in all the ariids and auchenoglanidins (but not in the claroteins) examined, the adductor mandibulae A is a well-developed, obliquely oriented bundle, with its posterodorsal fibers being significantly dorsal to the upper edge of the coronoid process (see Fig. ...
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... surface of the mandible (see, e.g., fig. 7B). However, in Cranoglanis bouderius, as well as in all the ariids and auchenoglanidins (but not in the claroteins) examined, the adductor mandibulae A is a well-developed, obliquely oriented bundle, with its posterodorsal fibers being significantly dorsal to the upper edge of the coronoid process (see Fig. ...
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Citations
... Cluster 3: Morphological Focus -Here, emphasis shifts from species-centric studies to anatomical areas, particularly the "pectoral girdle". Nonetheless, the recurrent theme of sedative efficacy persists, with the cluster showcasing publications majorly from the early 2000s (2001) [50][51][52][53]. e. Cluster 4: African Catfish Dynamics -This cluster, with its focus on the "african catfish Clarias gariepinus", delves into the hormonal aspect of catfish research, particularly the pituitary gonadotropin-releasing hormone. ...
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... Cranoglanis bouderius is classified under Siluriformes, Cranoglanididae，considered the sole representative of Cranoglanis [23,24]. It is an economic fish endemic to East Asia, found primarily in the Pearl River and Hainan Island basins of southern China, as well as the Red River basin of northern Vietnam, and has high nutritional and food value [25]. ...
In China, the Cranoglanis bouderius is classified as a national class II-protected animal. The development of C. bouderius populations has been affected by a variety of factors over the past few decades, with severe declines occurring. Considering the likelihood of continued population declines of the C. bouderius in the future, it is critical to investigate the currently unknown characteristics of gonadal differentiation and sex-related genes for C. bouderius conservation. In this study, the Illumina sequencing platform was used to sequence the gonadal transcriptome of the C. bouderius to identify the pathways and genes related to gonadal development and analyze the expression differences in the gonads. A total of 12,002 DEGs were identified, with 7220 being significantly expressed in the ovary and 4782 being significantly expressed in the testis. According to the functional enrichment results, the cell cycle, RNA transport, apoptosis, Wnt signaling pathway, p53 signaling pathway, and prolactin signaling pathway play important roles in sex development in the C. bouderius. Furthermore, the sequence characterization and evolutionary analysis revealed that AMH, DAX1, NANOS1, and AR of the C. bouderius are highly conserved. Specifically, the qRT-PCR results from various tissues showed significant differences in AMH, DAX1, NANOS1, and AR expression levels in the gonads of both sexes of C. bouderius. These analyses indicated that AMH, DAX1, NANOS1, and AR may play important roles in the differentiation and development of C. bouderius gonads. To our best knowledge, this study is the first to analyze the C. bouderius gonadal transcriptome and identify the structures of sex-related genes, laying the foundation for future research.
... However, the wild resources of this fish have declined markedly in recent years, as a consequence of overfishing, and in 2011 it was placed on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (www.iucnredlist.org). Previous studies on C. bouderius have focused on morphology (Diogo et al., 2002;Luckenbill and Lundberg, 2009), physiology (Zhou et al., 2003;Chen et al., 2016), genetic diversity (Cheng et al., 2009), and molecular characterization of the complete mitochondrial genome (Peng et al., 2006). However, despite this extensive research, the lack of a high-quality chromosome-level reference genome for C. bouderius has significantly hindered in-depth research on the evolution, breeding, and conservation of this fish. ...
... Some studies describing published by Rui Diogo: e.g. Diogo & Chardon (2000a, b); Diogo (2003); Diogo et al. (1999Diogo et al. ( , 2000aDiogo et al. ( , b, 2001Diogo et al. ( , 2002Diogo et al. ( , 2003aDiogo et al. ( , b, c, d, 2004aDiogo et al. ( , b, c, d, 2006a., and more recently by Datovo and Bockman, 2010. Other research on the muscular (Alexander, 1965;Gosline, 1989;Schaefer & Lauder, 1986;and Adriaens et al., 2001) or muscle development (Adriaens & Verraes, 1996& 1997and Adriaens, 1998). ...
This paper reports the results of a comparative study of the mandibular, hyoid, and pectoral musculature of South American Doradidae. Sixty-one species of Doradidae were examined including representatives of all the genera. Twenty muscles are described including their ontogenetic origin, function, area of origin and insertion, and parts. Seven muscles from the cranial region: adductor mandibulae, extensor tentaculi, levator arcus palatini, dilatator operculi, levator operculi, adductor operculi, and adductor arcus palatini; six muscles from the ventral region: intermandibularis, protractor hyoidei, hyohyoides inferioris, hyohyoidei abductores, hyohyoidei adductores, and sternohyoideus; and seven muscles from the pectoral fin: adductor superficialis, adductor profundus, abductor superficialis, abductor profundus, arrector ventralis, arrector dorsalis, and abductor rotator. Comparisons between Doradidae and other catfish families (e.g. Auchenipteridae, Aspredinidae) were made in order to understand and establish variations in position and shape of different muscles. A muscle not previously described for the pectoral fin of catfishes is described and named here as abductor rotator.
... The sister group of the Ictaluridae is now agreed to be the East Asian family Cranoglanididae (Diogo, 2004, Sullivan et al., 2006 Hardman and Hardman, 2008 ). Cranoglanidids (Diogo et al., 2002) have pectoral anatomy most similar to blue and channel catfish, the main difference being the migration of the arrector dorsalis away from the midline of the ventral cleithrum in Ictalurus. This finding roots the tree and suggests that more midline position in Ictalurus is basal and increased lateral migration is a derived trait. ...
The pectoral spine of catfishes is an antipredator adaptation that can be bound, locked, and rubbed against the cleithrum to produce stridulation sounds. We describe muscle morphology of the pectoral spines and rays in six species in four genera of North American ictalurid catfishes. Since homologies of catfish pectoral muscles have not been universally accepted, we designate them functionally as the spine abductor and adductor and the arrector dorsalis and ventralis. The four muscles of the remaining pectoral rays are the superficial and deep (profundal) abductors and adductors. The large spine abductor and spine adductor are responsible for large amplitude movements, and the smaller arrector dorsalis and arrector ventralis have more specialized functions, that is, spine elevation and depression, respectively, although they also contribute to spine abduction. Three of the four spine muscles were pennate (the abductor and two arrectors), the spine adductor can be pennate or parallel, and ray muscles have parallel fibers. Insertions of pectoral muscles are similar across species, but there is a shift of origins in some muscles, particularly of the superficial abductor of the pectoral rays, which assumes a midline position in Ictalurus and increasingly more lateral placement in Ameiurus (one quarter way out from the midline), and Pylodictis and Noturus (half way out). Coincident with this lateral shift, the attachments of the hypaxial muscle to the ventral girdle become more robust. Comparison with its sister group supports the midline position as basal and lateral migration as derived. The muscles of the pectoral spine are heavier than muscles of the remaining rays in all species but the flathead, supporting the importance of specialized spine functions above typical movement. Further, spine muscles were larger than ray muscles in all species but the flathead catfish, which lives in water with the fastest currents. J. Morphol., 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
... The origin of the levator operculi on both the neurocranium and the hyomandibulometapterygoid is a very rare feature among catfishes, being only present, apart the pimelodids, on a few catfishes such as plotosids, cranoglanidids, schilbids and silurids (Diogo & Vandewalle). As these latter four groups are very likely more closely related to other catfish groups than to the pimelodids (Mo; De Pinna, 1998; Diogo et al., 2002a; Diogo, 2004), this character supports the monophyly of the Pimelodidae. ...
... Diogo & Chardon 2000c: Figs. 5 and 6). As these three groups seem to be more closely related to certain other catfish groups than to the pimelodids (Mo; De Pinna, 1998; Diogo et al., 2002a; Diogo, 2004), this character constitutes on more strong argument on behalf of the monophyly of the family Pimelodidae. ...
The cephalic and pectoral girdle structures of the heptapterin Hepapterus mustelinus ('Nemuroglanis clade') are described and compared to those of two representatives of the other, more plesiomorphic, main heptapterin group, namely Goeldiella eques and Rhamdia guatemalensis ('basal clade'), as well as of several other catfishes, as the foundation for a discussion on the synapomorphies and phylogenetic relationships of the Heptapterinae. In addition to the five synapomorphies commonly referred in the literature, there is another potential Heptapterinae synapomorphy: the well-developed maxilla forming a completely closed, deep tube to enclose the base of the maxillary barbel. The subfamilies Pimelodinae, Heptapterinae and Pseudopimeodinae seem to form a monophyletic assemblage, thus contradicting the commonly accepted idea that the family Pimelodidae is not a natural group.
... As this derived structure is only found in the clarotein and pangasiid catfishes, and as claroteines appear to be more closely related to other catfish groups (e.g. auchenoglanidines, ariids, austroglanidids and cranoglanidids) than to pangasiids (Mo; De Pinna, 1998; Diogo et al., 2002a; Diogo, 2003ab, 2004), this feature was seemingly independently acquired in these two groups. ...
... As the Ariidae are seemingly more closely related to other catfish groups (e.g. Claroteidae, Austroglanididae, Cranoglanididae and Ictaluridae: Diogo et al., 2002a; Oliveira et al., 2002; Diogo, 2003a; Diogo, 2004) than to the Schilbidae and the Pangasiidae, this feature was probably independently acquired in the Ariidae, thus constituting a synapomorphy to support the clade Schilbidae + Pangasiidae. ...
... As other studies recently published by the author and colleagues (e.g. Diogo et al., 1999 Diogo et al., ,b, 2001c Diogo et al., , 2002a Diogo & Chardon, 2000c; Oliveira et al., 2001; Diogo, 2003b), the present work thus stresses that the analysis of certain characters that are not usually included in the study of catfish relationships, such as e.g. those concerning precisely the configuration of the structures associated with the mandibular barbels or of the cephalic muscles could reveal useful data to infer the phylogeny of these fishes. ...
The cephalic and pectoral girdle structures of Pangasius macronema are described and compared with those of another representative of the same genus, Pangasius larnaudii, and of representatives of the other pangasiid genus, Helicophagus leptorhynchus and Helicophagus typus, as well as of several other catfishes, as the foundation for a discussion of the synapomorphies and phylogenetic relationships of the Pangasiidae. The following two features could constitute Pangasiidae autapomorphies: 1) presence of prominent crest on the dorso-lateral surfaces of both the hyomandibulo-metapterygoid and the ento-ectopterygoid; 2) presence of a large, circular foramen between the anterodorsomedial surface of the extrascapular, the dorsomesial surface of the pterotic and the dorsolateral surface of the parieto-supraoccipital. With respect to the phylogenetic relationships of the Pangasiidae, this family is seemingly closely related to the Schilbidae.
... Situated medially to the levator operculi, it runs from the ventral surface of the pterotic to the dorso-medial surface of the opercle (Fig. 2). There is no adductor hyomandibularis (sensu DIOGO et al., 2002;DIOGO & VANDEWALLE, 2003). ...
The cephalic and pectoral girdle structures of Nematogenys inermis are described and compared to those of other catfishes, as the foundation for a discussion on the autapomorphies and phylogenetic relationships of the Nematogenyidae. Our observations and comparisons indicate that nematogenyids are defined, at least, by two unique, autapomorphic characters, namely : 1) anterior margin of prevomer markedly extended anteriorly, at about the same level of anterior margin of mesethmoid; 2) anterior ceratohyal with prominent, posteriorly pointed, posterodorsal pro- jection bordering a significant part of the dorsal margin of the posterior ceratohyal. With respect to the phylogenetic relationships of the Nematogenyidae, this study supports Mo's 1991 and de Pinna's 1992 phylogenetic hypotheses according to which the nematogenyids and the trichomycterids are sister-groups.
... Such a pronounced bifurcation is a very rare feature among catfishes, being only present, apart from the pseudopimelodins, on a few catfishes such as chacids, silurids, ictalurids, claroteids or the amphiliid genus Amphilius (Diogo, 2003a). The fact that these four latter groups are very likely more closely related to other catfish groups than to the pseudopimelodines (Mo, 1991;de Pinna, 1998;Diogo et al., 2002a;Diogo, 2003aDiogo, , b, 2004, associated with the fact that this character is present in all these four pseudopimelodin genera (the situation in Cephalosilurus could not be discerned) but absent in the non-pseudopimelodin pimelodids (see below), seems to indicate that this feature constitutes a pseudopimelodin synapomorphy. ...
... Spoon-like autopalatine with a roundish, dorso-ventrally expanded posterior tip. As the pronounced anterior bifurcation of the mesethmoid, this derived character (Mo, 1991;de Pinna, 1998) also seems to constitute a pseudopimelodin synapomorphy, since, apart from the pseudopimelodins, it is only present in a few, phylogenetically distant (Mo, 1991;de Pinna, 1993;de Pinna, 1998;Diogo et al., 2002a;Diogo, 2003bDiogo, , 2004 catfish groups, such as the doradoids or the sisoroids, and absent in both the pimelodin and the heptapterin pimelodids (see below). However, it is evidently necessary to undertake further studies on the configuration of other pseudopimelodin members to discern if this character indeed constitutes a Pseudopimelodinae synapomorphy. ...
... The origin of the levator operculi on both the neurocranium and the hyomandibulo-metapterygoid is a very rare feature among catfishes, being only present, apart from the pimelodids, on a few catfishes such as plotosids, cranoglanidids, schilbids and silurids (Diogo and Vandewalle, 2003). As these four groups are probably more closely related to other catfish groups than to pimelodids (Mo, 1991;de Pinna, 1998;Diogo et al., 2002a;Diogo, 2004), this character also supports the monophyly of the Pimelodidae. ...
The cephalic and pectoral girdle structures of the pimelodin Pimelodus blochii (Pimelodus group) are described and compared to those of representatives of the two other main pimelodin groups, namely Calophysus macropterus (Calophysus group) and Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum (Sorubim group), and of a representative of the peculiar pimelodin genus Hypophthalmus, H. edentatus, and several other catfishes, as the foundation for a discussion on the synapomorphies and phylogenetic relationships of the Pimelodinae. Three new, additional potential synapomorphies to support the monophyly of the Pimelodinae are pointed out: (1) presence of a 'muscle 1 of the mandibular barbels' running from the antero-ventro-mesial surface of the cartilaginous plates carrying these barbels to the dentaries; (2) presence of a muscle tensor tripodis running from the posterior surface of the neurocranium to the dorsal surface of the swimbladder near the tripus; and (3) presence of a 'drumming muscle of the swimbladder' running from the parapophyses of the fourth vertebra and, eventually, the posterior surface of the neurocranium, to the antero and antero-ventral surface of the swimbladder. The subfamilies Pimelodinae, Heptapterinae and Pseudopimelodinae seem to constitute a monophyletic assemblage, thus contradicting the commonly accepted idea that the family Pimelodidae is a polyphyletic clade.
... To provide a first evaluation of the phylogenetic placement of Lacantunia we examined it for possession of previously reported diagnostic synapomorphies of monophyletic siluriform clades at and above the family level. The clades and principal references are: Diplomystidae (Arratia 1987); Siluroidei (Grande 1987); Hypsidoridae (Grande 1987, Grande & de Pinna 1998); Cetopsidae (de Pinna & Vari 1995); Amphiliidae (); Loricarioidei (Schaefer 1990, de Pinna 1992); Nematogenyidae (de Pinna ZOOTAXA 1992); Trichomycteridae (de Pinna 1992); Callichthyidae (Reis 1998); Scoloplacidae (Schaefer 1990); Astroblepidae (Schaefer 1990); Loricariidae (Schaefer 1987, Armbruster 2004); Sisoroidei (de Pinna 1996, de Pinna & Ng 2004); Akysidae (de Pinna 1996); Amblycipitidae (Chen 1994, de Pinna 1996); Erethistidae (de Pinna 1996); Sisoridae (de Pinna 1996); Aspredinidae (Friel 1994, de Pinna 1996); Pseudopimelodidae (Lundberg et al. 1991a, Shibatta 1998); Heptapteridae (Lundberg & McDade 1986, Bockmann 1998); Pimelodidae (Nass 1991, Lundberg et al. 1991b ); Doradoidei (Royero 1987, Ferraris 1988); Mochokidae (Mo 1991, de Pinna 1993); Doradidae (Higuchi 1992); Auchenipteridae (Ferraris 1988); Ariidae (Mo 1991, Marceniuk 2003); Clariidae (Teugels & Adriens 2003); Schilbidae (Mo 1991, de Pinna 1993); Pangasiidae (de Pinna 1993); Claroteidae (Mo 1991); Australoglanididae (Mo 1991); Malapteruridae (Howes 1985, de Pinna 1993); Bagridae (Mo 1991, Ng 2003 ); Australoglanididae (Mo 1991); Cranoglanididae (Diogo et al. 2002); Ictaluridae (Lundberg 1982, Grande & Lundberg 1988, Lundberg 1992); Siluridae (Bornbusch 1991, Bornbusch 1995); Chacidae (Brown & Ferraris 1998, Diogo et al. 2004); Plotosidae (de Pinna 1993). Abbreviations: FR frontal, HYO hyomandibula, LAPC levator arcus palatini crest, LET lateral ethmoid , LJ lower jaw, MNF mandibular nerve foramen, MPT metapterygoid, OP opercle, P palatine, POP preopercle, PTE pterotic, Q quadrate, SPH sphenotic, SPHP sphenotic process. ...
A new family (Lacantuniidae), genus and species of catfish, Lacantunia enigmatica, is described from the Río Usumacinta basin of Chiapas, México. This odd siluriform is diagnosed by five dis-tinctively autapomorphic and anatomically complex structures. The fifth (last) infraorbital bone is relatively large, anteriorly convex and remote from a prominent sphenotic process. The lateral mar-gin of the frontal, lateral ethmoid and sphenotic bones are thick at the origins of much enlarged adductor mandibulae and levator arcus palatini muscles; otherwise the skull roof is constricted and flat. One pair of cone-shaped "pseudo-pharyngobranchial" bones is present at the anterior tips of enlarged cartilages medial to the first epibranchial. A hypertrophied, axe-shaped uncinate process emerges dorsally from the third epibranchial. The gas bladder has paired spherical, unencapsulated diverticulae protruding from its anterodorsal wall. Lacantunia enigmatica cannot be placed within or as a basal sister lineage to any known catfish family or multifamily clade except Siluroidei. This species may represent an ancient group, perhaps of early Tertiary age or older, and it adds another biogeographic puzzle to the historically complex Mesoamerican biota.
