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Representative frontal photographs with marked reference points. (a) Anthropometric landmarks: glabella (Gb), internal endocanthion of the right eye (EnR), internal endocanthion of the left eye (EnL), external exocanthion of the right eye (ExR), and external exocanthion of the left eye (ExL), subnasal (Sn), right chelion (CR), left chelion (CL), and menton (Me). (b) Interlandmaks distances: subnasal–glabella (Sn–Gb, red line), subnasal–menton (Sn–Me, green line); between inner edges of the eyes (EnR–EnL, light blue line); between outer edges of the eyes (ExR–ExL, dark blue line); and intercommissural (CR–CL, yellow line).
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(1) Background: Facial scanners are used in different fields of dentistry to digitalize the soft tissues of the patient’s face. The development of technology has allowed the patient to have a 3-dimensional virtual representation, facilitating facial integration in the diagnosis and treatment plan. However, the accuracy of the facial scanner and the...
Citations
... Second, the regular exposition to ionizing radiation of patients or healthy subjects for longitudinal studies is ethically questionable [8,9]. Hence, the use of alternative noninvasive and radiation-free techniques seems to be the best way to understand how the face develops and changes with time and/or after treatment [10][11][12]. Furthermore, it has been hypothesized that almost 50% of the variability in the shape of soft tissues might be an effect of changes in the dental and skeletal tissues underneath [13]. Three-dimensional imaging systems have benefitted from tremendous and rapid improvements over the last 20 years and now allow for detailed diagnoses of facial soft tissue, opening new opportunities in orthodontic and maxillofacial treatment planning. ...
... Moreover, 3D changes after surgical [19] and nonsurgical treatments [18,23] were also analyzed. Three-dimensional stereophotogrammetry was extensively tested for its reliability and validity: high precision and accuracy were shown [12,24], and good accuracy was found when facial scans (FSs) were superimposed on CBCTs [25]. However, there is a great diversity in soft tissue analysis and FS analysis has never been compared with the analysis of CBCT. ...
Background: The aim of this study was to evaluate the accuracy and the repeatability of two reference systems for three-dimensional facial scans (FSs) compared with a reference system based on cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT). Subjects and methods: A total of sixty subjects, thirty growing participants (8–17 years old) and thirty non-growing participants (older than 21 years old), with FSs and full-field-of-view CBCT were included. Two different reference systems on the same FS were constructed. To assess validity, the two reference systems based on FSs were compared with the reference systems built using the CBCT scans. After two weeks, all of the FSs were reassessed to evaluate intra-operator repeatability. Reliability and repeatability were evaluated by means of parametric and non-parametric tests, intra-class correlation, the Dahlberg formula, and Bland–Altman plots (p < 0.05). Results: Both reference systems presented good reliability and showed a small difference with respect to the CBCT-based sagittal plane (Sagittal FS1 = 1.90° ± 0.98°; Sagittal FS2 = 1.80° ± 1.13°; p = 0.232). Between them, the two reference systems showed a small difference in the position of the sagittal plane (Sagittal FS1^Sagittal FS2= 1.39° ± 1.13°). Conclusions: Both reference systems assessed in this study showed good intra-operator repeatability and their use may be suggested as reliable reference systems for FSs.
... In contrast, some other systems were used by some authors. The Face Shape 3D Maxi Line 33 consists of 3 cameras (1 front and 2 side cameras), the Antera 3D has 1 central mobile face, 34 FaceSCAN II 3D 35 consists of 2 central cameras, the Bellus 3D Face Camera PRO has 3 front cameras adaptable to a smartphone, 36 and the KONICA MINOLTA VIVID 910 3D scanner consists of a central mobile camera. 37 These all correspond to 3D image acquisition systems, whereas a 3D photogrammetry system with single-lens reflex cameras was used by Deli et al (2011). ...
... In contrast, the Bellus 3D Face Camera PRO and KONICA MINOLTA VIVID 910 3D scanner are devices without integrated lighting. Cascos et al (2023) 36 In contrast, ambient light is also important at the moment of image acquisition, as it produces shadows that the photographic light must control. Kale and Buyukcavus, 21 12 were the only ones that completely eliminated any light source (natural or artificial), keeping the environment 100% dark. ...
... In contrast, the Bellus 3D Face Camera PRO and KONICA MINOLTA VIVID 910 3D scanner are devices without integrated lighting. Cascos et al (2023) 36 In contrast, ambient light is also important at the moment of image acquisition, as it produces shadows that the photographic light must control. Kale and Buyukcavus, 21 12 were the only ones that completely eliminated any light source (natural or artificial), keeping the environment 100% dark. ...
Objective: Orthognathic surgery is a viable and reproducible treatment for facial deformities. Despite the precision of the skeletal planning of surgical procedures, there is little in- formation about the relations between hard and soft tissues in three-dimensional (3D) analysis, resulting in unpredictable soft tissue outcomes. Three-dimensional photography is a viable tool for soft tissue analysis because it is easy to use, has wide availability, low cost, and is harmless. This review aims to es- tablish parameters for acquiring consistent and reproducible 3D facial images.
Methods: A scoping review was conducted across PubMed, SCOPUS, Scientific Electronic Library Online (SciELO), and Web of Science databases, adhering to “Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews” guidelines. Articles presenting 3D facial photographs in the diagnostic phase were considered.
Results: A total of 79 articles were identified, of which 29 were selected for analysis.
Conclusion: The predominant use of automated systems like 3dMD and VECTRA M3 was noted. User positioning has highest agreement among authors. Noteworthy aspects include the importance of proper lighting, facial expression, and dental positioning, with observed discrepancies and inconsistencies among authors. Finally, the authors proposed a 3D image ac- quisition protocol based on this research findings.
... A recent in vitro study by Revilla-León et al. 17 reveals that the trueness of the 3D virtual patient representation was improved by using an extraoral scan body (244 µm vs. 346 µm) and operator handling had a significant effect on the trueness and precision values of the 3D virtual patient integration. Following a recent study by Cascos et al., 18 the method used to trace cutaneous reference points with a facial scanner can be considered an accurate method for the reproduction of facial soft tissue landmarks. Piedra-Cascón et al. 19 found clinically acceptable values (trueness mean value of 0.91 mm and a precision mean value of 0.32 mm) for the digitizing process of a 3D virtual patient. ...
This clinical report introduces a novel clinical technique to create a 3D virtual patient for transferring the edentulous maxillary arch position with maxillomandibular relationship by using a facial scan device and an intraoral scanner and omitting CBCT imaging.
... In the clinical setting, for the purpose of monitoring physical activity and dietary interventions, a commercial three-dimensional optical (3DO) imaging system has been evaluated for assessing total and regional body composition and anthropometric measurements, providing precise and accurate estimates [21]. Structured-light 3D scanners are relatively new technologies that are mostly employed in clinical settings [22]. A major difference between scanning protocols for living people and the present study is that since this method involves acquiring scans of a cadaver, any motion artifacts that may exist in the case of living people are inherently eliminated. ...
Background: Anthropometric measurements play a crucial role in medico-legal practices. Actually, several scanning technologies are employed in post-mortem investigations for forensic anthropological measurements. This study aims to evaluate the precision, inter-rater reliability, and accuracy of a handheld scanner in measuring various body parts. Methods: Three independent raters measured seven longitudinal distances using an iPad Pro equipped with a LiDAR sensor and specific software. These measurements were statistically compared to manual measurements conducted by an operator using a laser level and a meterstick (considered the gold standard). Results: The Friedman test revealed minimal intra-rater variability in digital measurements. Inter-rater variability analysis yielded an ICC = 1, signifying high agreement among the three independent raters. Additionally, the accuracy of digital measurements displayed errors below 1.5%. Conclusions: Preliminary findings demonstrate that the pairing of LiDAR technology with the Polycam app (ver. 3.2.11) and subsequent digital measurements with the MeshLab software (ver. 2022.02) exhibits high precision, inter-rater agreement, and accuracy. Handheld scanners show potential in forensic anthropology due to their simplicity, affordability, and portability. However, further validation studies under real-world conditions are essential to establish the reliability and effectiveness of handheld scanners in medico-legal settings.
... Some craniofacial landmark measurements, such as the eye-ear distance (EED), have been used to approximate the height of the lower third of the face. [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23] The EED has been correlated with the distance between the septum of the nose (Sn) and the base of the chin (Me). 5,6 The reproducibility of craniofacial measures on soft tissues remains controversial. ...
... Improvements in the accuracy of the present study findings could be developed by using photographs, face scans, or cone beam computed tomography scans to overcome measurement bias related to pressure on the soft tissues. 22,23 The present study provides a validated algorithm for predicting OVD based on facial type and left EED. This may help eliminate analog steps for registering OVD in the fabrication of complete removable dental prostheses. ...
Digitalizing all aspects of dental care is a contemporary approach to ensuring the best possible clinical outcomes. Ongoing advancements in 3D face acquisition have been driven by continuous research on craniofacial structures and treatment effects. An array of 3D surface-imaging systems are currently available for generating photorealistic 3D facial images. However, choosing a purpose-specific system is challenging for clinicians due to variations in accuracy, reliability, resolution, and portability. Therefore, this review aims to provide clinicians and researchers with an overview of currently used or potential 3D surface imaging technologies and systems for 3D face acquisition in craniofacial research and daily practice. Through a comprehensive literature search, 71 articles meeting the inclusion criteria were included in the qualitative analysis, investigating the hardware, software, and operational aspects of these systems. The review offers updated information on 3D surface imaging technologies and systems to guide clinicians in selecting an optimal 3D face acquisition system. While some of these systems have already been implemented in clinical settings, others hold promise. Furthermore, driven by technological advances, novel devices will become cost-effective and portable, and will also enable accurate quantitative assessments, rapid treatment simulations, and improved outcomes.
