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Mean weekly catches of sterile and wild male codling moths in wing traps baited with a 1 mg codlemone-loaded red rubber septum, and catches of male and female, sterile and wild codling moths in white delta traps baited with a propylene bottle containing 10 mL of glacial acetic acid plus a grey rubber septum loaded with 1 mg of pear ester, ethyl-(E,Z)-2,4-decadienoate (AA-PE) in 2008.
Source publication
Studies were conducted in commercial apple orchards in British Columbia, Canada, to determine whether lures combining ethyl-(E,Z)-2,4-decadienoate, pear ester (PE), with either acetic acid (AA) or sex pheromone, (E,E)-8,10-dodecadien-1-ol (codlemone), might improve monitoring of codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), in an area-wide programme integrat...
Contexts in source publication
Context 1
... activity of wild moths measured by weekly catches with pheromone traps was somewhat different from that reflected by AA-PE lures (Figure 1). Peak mean weekly catches of wild male (4.8) and female (7.0) codling moths with AA-PE lures occurred on 24 and 16 July 2008, respectively, a time when few wild males (0-0.8 moths/week) were caught in SIR Program pheromone traps (Figure 1). ...
Context 2
... activity of wild moths measured by weekly catches with pheromone traps was somewhat different from that reflected by AA-PE lures (Figure 1). Peak mean weekly catches of wild male (4.8) and female (7.0) codling moths with AA-PE lures occurred on 24 and 16 July 2008, respectively, a time when few wild males (0-0.8 moths/week) were caught in SIR Program pheromone traps (Figure 1). The S:W ratios for male (0.27:1) versus female (0.32:1) moths based on total catch (n = 4 traps) with AA-PE lures at peak wild catch were not significantly different (χ 2 = 0.071, df = 1, p = 0.896), but both were well below the male S:W ratio (43:1) estimated with SIR Program pheromone traps from 16 to 24 July (Figure 1). ...
Context 3
... mean weekly catches of wild male (4.8) and female (7.0) codling moths with AA-PE lures occurred on 24 and 16 July 2008, respectively, a time when few wild males (0-0.8 moths/week) were caught in SIR Program pheromone traps (Figure 1). The S:W ratios for male (0.27:1) versus female (0.32:1) moths based on total catch (n = 4 traps) with AA-PE lures at peak wild catch were not significantly different (χ 2 = 0.071, df = 1, p = 0.896), but both were well below the male S:W ratio (43:1) estimated with SIR Program pheromone traps from 16 to 24 July (Figure 1). Seasonal male S:W ratios measured with codlemone lures (92:1) were skewed even further by large late-season catches of sterile males when wild males were absent (Figure 1). ...
Context 4
... S:W ratios for male (0.27:1) versus female (0.32:1) moths based on total catch (n = 4 traps) with AA-PE lures at peak wild catch were not significantly different (χ 2 = 0.071, df = 1, p = 0.896), but both were well below the male S:W ratio (43:1) estimated with SIR Program pheromone traps from 16 to 24 July (Figure 1). Seasonal male S:W ratios measured with codlemone lures (92:1) were skewed even further by large late-season catches of sterile males when wild males were absent (Figure 1). Catches of wild males with codlemone lures went to zero as catches of sterile moths increased in all trap types. ...
Context 5
... of wild males with codlemone lures went to zero as catches of sterile moths increased in all trap types. Wild codling moth catches with AA-PE lures continued for two weeks after wild males ceased being caught in pheromone traps (Figure 1). ...
Context 6
... under both management systems, the seasonal total sterile moth catch with the AA-PE lure had a significantly greater percentage of females, and the CM-DA lure had a significantly greater percentage of males ( Figure 2). Figure 1. Mean weekly catches of sterile and wild male codling moths in wing traps baited with a 1 mg codlemone-loaded red rubber septum, and catches of male and female, sterile and wild codling moths in white delta traps baited with a propylene bottle containing 10 mL of glacial acetic acid plus a grey rubber septum loaded with 1 mg of pear ester, ethyl-(E,Z)-2,4-decadienoate (AA-PE) in 2008. ...
Context 7
... AA-PE and CM-DA lures appear to track the seasonal phenology of wild codling moth at extremely low population densities, apparently sometimes better than pheromone lures in orchards managed by SIT or SIT + MD, respectively (Figures 1 and 3). For example, in experiment 1, the number of season-long catches of wild male codling moths in codlemone-baited traps was less than half the number of wilds caught with AA-PE lures (Table 1). ...
Context 8
... example, in experiment 1, the number of season-long catches of wild male codling moths in codlemone-baited traps was less than half the number of wilds caught with AA-PE lures (Table 1). Furthermore, catches of wild male codling moths were low or undetectable in pheromone traps at times when catches of wild codling moths were at their peaks using AA-PE lures (Figure 1). This discrepancy and obvious late-July to August decline in catches of wild males in pheromone traps may have something to do with changes in the activity of sterile females. ...
Context 9
... discrepancy and obvious late-July to August decline in catches of wild males in pheromone traps may have something to do with changes in the activity of sterile females. Seasonal variation in catches of sterile males in pheromone traps is a well-documented phenomenon in the Canadian SIR Program [12]; catches with AA-PE lures have provided the first evidence that sterile females have the same seasonal activity as sterile males (Figure 1). An increase in catches of sterile moths in summer likely reflects their increased flight activity at warmer temperatures [31]. ...
Context 10
... weather likely increases the activity of unmated sterile females and the number releasing sex pheromone (calling). The efficiency of codling moth pheromone traps is reduced by competition between calling females and the trap lure [32]; therefore, in experiment 1, competition between calling sterile females and pheromone traps may have reached a peak in late July, when standard pheromone traps ceased catching wild males (Figure 1). Throughout this same period, AA-PE lures continued to catch both male and female wild codling moths probably because kairomones do not compete with natural or synthetic pheromone sources. ...
Citations
... Monitoring traps are essential for establishing biofix (Riedl et al. 1976), timing pesticide applications (Gut and Wise 2016), and estimating pest populations (Adams et al. 2017a). Monitoring traps are also used to measure the effectiveness of mating disruption (Gut and Brunner 1998, Thomson et al. 2001, Miller and Gut 2015 and sterile insect release programs (Dyck et al. 1993, Judd 2016. While critically important to codling moth management, checking hundreds of traps over vast acres of commercial apple orchards is time consuming and labor intensive, leading some researchers to explore the possibility of making management decisions without traps (Jones et al. 2008). ...
... The composition and dose of the semiochemical lure can also affect trap capture (Knight and Light 2005b, Judd 2016, Liu et al. 2016. For codling moth numerous lure formulation are commercially available and consist of various doses of the sex-pheromone codlemone, attractive to males, pear ester, attractive to females, or a combination thereof attractive to both sexes. ...
Sex pheromone baited monitoring traps are a critical tool for integrated pest management decisions against many insects, particularly codling moths (Cydia pomonella L.). The addition of cameras for remote monitoring has the potential to enhance the usefulness of these important tools. However, changes in trap design could potentially alter plume structure and trapping efficiency of these new traps. Here we look at several trap configurations designed to optimize the capture of codling moths in traps equipped with cameras. We found that, in both wind tunnel and field trials, camera equipped triangle traps and camera equipped rectangle traps (both V1 and V2) caught codling moths equivalent to a standard ‘delta’ style trap. While catch was unaffected, altering our rectangular trap opening from 4 to 8 cm (V1 and V2, respectively) decreased frequency of moths contacting the front of trap and increased the frequency of moths flying directly into the trap. We show that these novel camera equipped semiochemical-baited traps catch equivalent to the industry standard white delta trap.
... 39,40 In addition, it is unlikely that smart traps could be used to differentiate 'wild' from laboratory-reared moths, which is critical in assessing sterile insect technology programs. 41,42 Smart traps can be useful tools in various research projects involving pest biology, such as characterizing the diurnal flight patterns of tortricid species. 43 Pictures taken at different timings in our study confirmed the period of adult codling moth activity, which has been well-studied previously. ...
BACKGROUND
Captures of codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), in traps are used to establish action thresholds and time insecticide sprays. The need for frequent trap inspections in often remote orchards has created a niche for remote sensing smart traps. A smart trap baited with a five‐component pheromone‐kairomone blend was evaluated for codling moth monitoring among an assemblage of other nontargets in apple and pear orchards.
RESULTS
Codling moth captures did not differ between the smart trap and a standard trap when both were checked manually. However, the correlation between automatic and manual counts of codling moth in the smart traps was low, R² = 0.66 ÷ 0.87. False‐negative identifications by the smart trap were infrequent <5%, but false‐positive identifications accounted for up to 67% of the count. These errors were primarily due to the misidentification of three moth species of fairly similar‐size to codling moth: apple clearwing moth Synanthedon myopaeformis (Borkhausen), oriental fruit moth Grapholita molesta (Busck), and carnation tortrix Cacoecimorpha pronubana (Hübner). Other false‐positive counts were less frequent and included the misidentifications of dipterans, other arthropods, patches of moth scales, and the double counting of some moths.
CONCLUSION
Codling moth was successfully monitored remotely with a smart trap baited with a nonselective sex pheromone‐kairomone lure, but automatic counts were inflated in some orchards due to mischaracterizations of primarily similar‐sized nontarget moths. Improved image‐identification algorithms are needed for smart traps baited with less‐selective lures and with lure sets targeting multiple species.
... A series of incremental improvements in lures have been made, following the discovery of a host kairomone derived from pear (pear ester, ethyl-(E,Z)-2,4-decadienoate). In combination with either acetic acid or sex pheromone [165], it increases the sensitivity and attractiveness of lures to both sexes, but particularly females, perhaps by eliciting food-finding behaviour [165][166][167]. Theoretically, estimates of female density and of mating status should provide a better measure than male trap counts of any risk of fruit damage and of the effects of the SIT. ...
... A series of incremental improvements in lures have been made, following the discovery of a host kairomone derived from pear (pear ester, ethyl-(E,Z)-2,4-decadienoate). In combination with either acetic acid or sex pheromone [165], it increases the sensitivity and attractiveness of lures to both sexes, but particularly females, perhaps by eliciting food-finding behaviour [165][166][167]. Theoretically, estimates of female density and of mating status should provide a better measure than male trap counts of any risk of fruit damage and of the effects of the SIT. ...
... Can the SIT be altered to function in a cost-effective manner in regions with both cold and hot seasons, or is it best confined to warm climate regions, as are most of the SIT programs operating presently? • Kairomone or low-dose pheromone lures and automated trapping systems for delineation of local infestations and improved measures of populations, and sex ratio, for sterile and wild moths [165,166]. • Introduction or augmentation of biological control agents, such as Mastrus spp. (Ichneumonidae), for population reduction in noncommercial hosts or in otherwise untreated sites [185,186]. ...
The advent of novel genetic methods has led to renewed interest in the sterile insect technique (SIT) for management of insect pests, owing to applications in mass rearing and in the production of sterile offspring without use of irradiation. An area-wide management programme for codling moth, Cydia pomonella, has employed the SIT and other management practices over a large area (3395 to 7331 ha) of orchards and neighbouring urban, public, or First Nations lands in British Columbia, Canada, for 25 years. This project is the first to employ the SIT for C. pomonella, and the longest-running application of area-wide techniques for its control, anywhere. It was derived from basic research and applied trials from the 1960s onwards. Many biological challenges were overcome, and lessons learnt, in transferring from small- to large-scale applications of mass rearing and the SIT, with particular regard to Lepidoptera. Research has proven essential to identifying, if not resolving, issues that threaten the implementation and success of any such programme. The major challenges encountered, and the resulting research, are reviewed, as well as future directions. Recommendations are given for application of the SIT as part of any area-wide management programme for C. pomonella.
Male Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) dispersion has largely been studied in nonmating disrupted orchards due to synthetic pheromone interference with capture in monitoring traps. Little is known about female dispersion. This study aimed to characterize male and female dispersion in mating disrupted commercial apple orchards. Sterile C. pomonella recapture data from single-trap multiple-release experiments using PHEROCON CM-DA COMBO + AA Lure-baited orange Pherocon VI delta traps was interpreted to determine pheromone-kairomone lure-baited trap effective area, trap deployment density for effective monitoring, and absolute male and female C. pomonella density in mating disrupted Washington commercial apple orchards. The maximum plume reach of the pheromone-kairomone lure in mating disrupted orchards was <5 m from the baited trap for both sexes. Maximum dispersive distances for 95% of the released C. pomonella in mating disrupted orchards were 106 and 135 m for males and females, yielding trapping areas of 3.87 and 6.16 ha, respectively. Estimates were consistent across 3 growing seasons and represent the first records of male and female dispersal distance and monitoring trap efficacy from commercial C. pomonella mating disrupted apple orchards. With relevance to commercial monitoring programs and economic thresholds in mating disrupted orchards, traps should be deployed at a density of 1 per 3-6 ha. Capture of a single male or female C. pomonella corresponds to at least 82-104 C. pomonella within the 3-6 ha trapping area. This refined C. pomonella capture interpretation in pheromone-kairomone baited traps in mating disrupted commercial apple orchards yields more precise damage estimates and assists in insecticide-use decision making.
The chemical ecology of codling moth, Cydia pomonella (L.), has been the subject of a worldwide research effort spanning five decades. The initial focus of this work was the characterization of codling moth sexual behavior and the identification of its sex pheromone, followed by the development of effective monitoring and management programs. Subsequently, a large body of work was dedicated to deciphering the chemical messaging systems that exist between both moth sexes and their apple host. However, it was from pear that a potent kairomone, pear ester, ethyl (E,Z)-2,4-decadienoate, was discovered, and surprisingly from field studies in walnut. Pear ester over the last decade has been the basis for the development of a range of commercial products that impact larval and adult behaviors and reduce levels of fruit injury. A review of codling moth and behavioral-active apple volatiles, the discovery of pear ester, and the development of useful technologies is provided here. A recounting of this story provides some considerations for the reader. First, that single odorants from a host e.g. (E,E)-α-farnesene and pear ester and maybe not complex volatile blends that more thoroughly characterize a host odor, are fruitful targets to develop female attractants. However, practical concerns such as chemical stability and synthesis cost will limit the implementation of any discovery. Second, it is not clear what semiochemical evoked behaviors should be targeted to develop an effective lure, i.e. suitable host for sexual rendezvous, oviposition, or as a food source. Background odors from immature fruits and undamaged foliage are generally more dilute and less complex than from ripening fruits or damaged foliage. Thus, effective chemical signals need to be more intense and apparent to lure moths. Third, it appears that adding acetic acid to host plant volatile lures is effective in drawing moths into traps, perhaps as a short-range food cue. Fourth, it was a field bioassay with a pear volatile in a walnut grove that unveiled the power of pear ester. Only later did a series of physiological and molecular studies detail the evolved interplay of pear ester and sex pheromone in the brain of codling moth. It is possible that this more basic approach will in the future allow the purposeful discovery of new attractants which can aid pest management of tortricids and other pest species. But more likely, chemists and applied insect ecologists need to continue to identify, synthesize, and test the various semiochemicals that define the lives of insects.
Spilonota ocellana (Denis and Schiffermüller) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) can be a serious pest of organic apples ( Malus domestica Borkhausen (Rosaceae)) in British Columbia, Canada. Recent discovery that S. ocellana moths are attracted by a lure combining acetic acid (AA) and benzyl nitrile (BN), identified as a caterpillar-induced apple leaf volatile, provides an opportunity to develop bisexual mass-trapping or monitoring systems. Sticky white delta traps baited with benzyl nitrile (10 mg/red rubber septum) and an acetic-acid co-lure (3 mL AA/3-mm open 8-mL vial) caught significantly more moths than either component alone. Acetic-acid co-lures were weakly attractive but benzyl-nitrile-loaded septa were not attractive. Moth catches with AA+BN lures were unaffected by the size and type of rubber septum used to release benzyl nitrile, but catches increased with increasing loads of benzyl nitrile. Male and total moth catches were maximised using membrane release devices loaded with a mixture of benzyl nitrile and a second caterpillar-induced volatile, 2-phenylethanol (PET), in combination with an acetic-acid co-lure (AA+BN-PET). Female catches with AA+BN-PET and AA+BN lures were equivalent. Placing AA+BN lures in traps baited with female sex pheromone lures reduced male catches, but female catches were unchanged. When sticky liners were replaced weekly, white delta traps baited with AA+BN lures caught more moths than similarly baited white Multipher ® -I bucket traps, or transparent Unitraps TM . Multipher-I traps with a propylene glycol killing agent (250 mL) caught more moths than those with Vapona insecticide strips. In apple orchards treated with mating disruption sex pheromones, traps baited with AA+BN caught slightly more total moths than traps baited with sex pheromone. Weekly, total male+female moth catches with either AA+BN or sex pheromone lures showed similar seasonal patterns in both untreated and pheromone-disrupted orchards, respectively. Long-lasting release devices and an organic killing agent are needed to develop certified organic mass-trapping technologies for management of S. ocellana with the AA+BN kairomone.
